Sociologists use a number of different concepts such as Social structure (higher class, lower class etc.) and social diversity. Social structure is a social organisation based on patterns of social interactions between different relationships regulated through accepted norms and shared values. Examples of these relationships are those between Parents & Children, Teachers & Students and Employers & Employees.
- Norms – Are social rules that define correct behaviour in society
- Values – Are what are important to an individual or a social group
Sociologists use different concepts such as:
- Social structure – higher class, lower class etc.
- Social diversity
- Socialisation
Social diversity
Society is a group of concurring people governed by shared norms and values. Sociologist refers to the institutions and organisations through which society is organised as social structures. Examples of these institutions include Education institutions, Hospitals/GP’s, Work environments, Family and Religion.
Everyone is socially diverse by their:
- Age
- Gender
- Culture
- Ethnicity
- Social class
- Location
Socialisation
Primary Socialisation takes place in the family from an early age, children learn social attitudes, values and acceptable ways of behaving from observing and being informally educated by parents/guardians, siblings and other relatives.
• Primary socialisation includes
• Essential language skills
• How to dress
• Family custom & traditions
Outside the family is where secondary socialisation occurs with friends and peers, school/college, work colleagues, the media, religious leaders and influential people such as teachers and employers are all agents of secondary socialisation.
Functionalism
Functionalism sees each part of society in terms of how it contributes to the stability of the whole, different institutions in society contribute to certain thing, this involves them working together, and using methods of control socially in order to deal those being deviant members or groups, functionalist believe this is because it ensures that society runs smoothly. All societies consist of key institutions that functions for accomplishment, for example the government provides education for children then the family is dependent on public educational institutions to ensure that their children grow up to have well-paying jobs in order for them to provide and support their future family. However, during this process children eventually become tax payers who build and support the country and economy. Functionalism focuses on equal social stability and shared public values. From this perspective, actions such as being deviant can help cause a revolution.
Criticisms of functionalism
Functionalism has been criticised as it fails to mention or argue the consequences of social order in society. This is the most essential criticism of the functionalist approach as functionalist emphasise a general agreement and form a positive picture of institutions having a clear, effective functions and co-operating effectively with good of society at heart. However, not everyone seems to have experienced this in the modern world, where there are usually winners and losers as well as many people who don’t dissent or act upon disagreement.
The idea of society’s members sharing some basic values and beliefs have been the core of functionalism, as well as it being grounded on the awareness that value consensus helps to support the socialisation process and the cooperation of key organisations and institution. The common values that may be shared in modern societies have not yet established by researchers. Functionalists are also very clear that the way we behave and present ourselves is a direct result of the socialisation process and also that very little of our behaviour can influence the result of our personal choices. Functionalists also believe that people are mainly programmed to behave in a specific way.
Marxism
Marxism is a structuralist model as well as a conflict model, Marxism builds on a materialist understanding of social development, Karl Marx developed this approach as he also thought that individual behaviour was shaped by society however, he believed that the economic system defined people and society’s place within it. Marx also had the view that were two social classes within the industrial society of his time, these two social classes were the bourgeoisie also known as capitalist. This powerful small group owned the factories and different places of employment, and then there were the proletariat who were a much larger group with less income. Marx believed that these two social groups will also be at disagreement and conflict; he thought this was because the owners of the factories, offices and land would want higher profits whilst the workers would want higher wages which would result in loss of profit. This would be one of the reasons Marxism is usually called the conflict model, it was thought that the conflict would somehow lead to revolution. Marxist believe that certain organisations are in place to benefit the upper class, who control the mainstream media outlets and the criminal justice legal system, they also believe influencing a certain curriculum in education institutions such as schools and colleges and other social institutions is how elite and powerful remain in control and power.
False consciousness – is in relation to proletariat, as the majority of the working class do not know or want to accept that they are being exploited by wealthy people who own business and that they are taking on their views and beliefs by working hard and serving the interest of the capitalist.
Marxists have a similar outlook to structuralist, like functionalist. They see the family as serving the capitalist system as they believe that they family is support the views and believes of the bourgeoisie. This is because during primary socialisation the family socialises children and prepare them for self-control and routines of work.
Criticism of Marxism
Like functionalist, Marxist believes that individual behaviour is linked to the result of the socialisation process which has very little individual choice. The criticism of Marxism has come from different political ideologies, and includes ethical and economical criticism. Critics also claim that Marxist put too much importance on different class interest and potential conflicts of the interest. Although understandable inequalities remain quality of living in industrialised societies has got better.
Feminism
The feminist perspective is usually seen as an example a conflict model, this is because they have much in common. However, it is not focused on the unequal distribution of power and resources, but instead the power in its relation to gender. Feminism in sociology is one of the major sociological theories, which study the status of women and men in society with the purpose of using that knowledge to provide equal opportunities. Feminist also question the differences between women and there are three main types of feminist approach; Marxist feminism, Radical feminism and liberal feminism.
Marxist feminism
Marxist feminism see woman, mainly the working-class woman as oppressed and exploited by the capitalist mode of production and also by men or the matriarchal society. Woman produce the next generation of workers, they attend to the physical, social and emotional needs of their children in order for their children to be ready and prepared to work in places of employment (offices, factories) and woman also assist and support their husbands and partners as well as preparing meals for the family, taking care of their children and maintaining a clean house. Marxist feminist also argue that the family wouldn’t be ready for work if someone did not take leadership and control of the domestic life.
Radical feminism
Radical feminist believe that gender inequality is a result of the men’s role to overlook, control and exploit women. Therefore it is not capitalism that has power and influence over women, but men. The family is looked upon as a fatherly institution, radical feminist argue that woman face the oppression of being socialised into being only mothers and housewives, this is seen as a characteristic of nuclear family life
Liberal feminism
Liberal feminist argue that social problems arise firstly from ignorance and social restriction on freedom of choice. Liberal feminist also argue that changes have happened and they also believe that changing the way we view things and introducing new legislations, such as Equal Pay Act (1970) can help influence society’s attitude towards the position of men and woman, they also believe that improvements and changes in law and policy will support and promote gender equality as a whole.
Interactionism
Interactionism focuses on the details of what goes on among individuals during everyday life as well as on the small groups and how they influence each other and the way how they act and make conscious choices. Interactionism in sociology examines how different people from different social groups make sense of, or the behaviour of those around us. Interactionism doesn’t look at or focus on large institutions and how they operate and connect to each other. However they may study various groups such as staff, gangs, patients and social interaction within school classrooms.
The socialisation process is taken into consideration as it has an effect on people however, Interactionist believed that people make the decision to choose how they really want to behave as well as make their own roles. The interactionism theory lack interest in social structure overall and believe that everyone’s behaviour is a result of how we interpret situations this includes how people see themselves, other people and how other people see them. Social action theorist think that social roles are not obviously defined, an example of this is when a mother realizes what is expected of her in order to be a good mother, but these theorist believe that through interpretation the mother will know what being a good mother means to her in connection of her family, her relationships, children as well as her contacts with the wider society.
Criticism of Interactionism
Interactionist perspectives have been criticised for not accepting that social roles exist, they do not study where the social roles come from and do not put enough effort into explaining how the social relationships we create, reflect back on our behaviour which according to their theory makes us behave predictably and in ways that give us little choice. Interactionist do talk about power relationships however, they are criticised for not theorising the nature of control in society efficiently and developing a social theory of the origins of power.
Postmodernism
Postmodernism focuses on society’s rapid changes and uncertainty, they suggest that we should no longer focus and talk about the established institutions such as the family, religion, education or the economy because nothing stays the same. They also believe that structuralism perspectives such as functionalism and Marxism do not help people understand society because of consistent change. Postmodernist believe that because the social institutions have become fragmented and society is becoming unstable with no shared set of norms due to the increased role media has in our society, which keeps on changing the established norms. They also believe that individuals and groups of people now have the opportunities and power to make their own lifestyle decisions, this can involve them picking from many consumer goods that are available and leisure activities.
Collectivism
Collectivism believes that community should work together in order to help each other and that members of society should all contribute to help the vulnerable. Collectivism is an approach to providing health and social care services, that is built and ran a government commitment that give support and care for people with disabilities as well as vulnerable people overall, for example, free school meals for students and other benefits for people in need such as benefits to the elderly (pensions).
Collectivism and the New Right are both models of political reaction to the role of government in our society and, their response involves identifying and meeting the expectations for areas of welfare need. The welfare is in place to help vulnerable and potentially vulnerable people in society for example children, older people, people with disabilities and people who suffer from mental illnesses. Some may see the care of these people as the responsibility of their family or the individual themselves, whilst others may see it as the responsibly of the community or religious groups such as churches.
This contrast with the New Right as they think that the state should play little role in welfare because they believe that welfare is the responsibility of the individual and their family. Whereas collectivists believe that the government should be in charge of managing the money raised for the vulnerable.
History of the Welfare state
After World War 2 many people were living in deprived conditions, such as homelessness, poverty and starvation due to low food stocks. Through the proposals made by William Beveridge the welfare state was developed and it included social security, the NHS, free education and council housing.