Systemic racism refers to an ingrained culture of racism that afflicts a particular society over a long period of time. Such discriminatory practices affect both white and black members of the community. In most cases, however, the black sections of society face the worst racist practices. This can be attributed to the marginally higher populations of white individuals compared to black individuals. This assertion is proven by localized regions where white persons are discriminated against because of being the minority group. Racism usually involves prejudices and the disintegration of community members. Manifestations of racism can be traced to attitudes and viewpoints cultivated from childhood. Therefore, eradicating systemic racism proves extremely difficult.
The United States has experienced a long-running culture of systemic racism. The roots of racism can be understood by reviewing the history of migrations into and out of the country. The prominence and source of the slave trade resulted in an increase in the number of black persons within the U.S. White persons served as the masters of black slaves obtained through human trafficking from African countries. Therefore, the master-slave relationship between whites and blacks led to an inflated sense of superiority on the part of the whites. Black people were perceived as inferior human beings. Plenty of harsh treatment was accorded to black persons crumbling under the yoke of white people.
During the mid-1950s, racial inequality was interwoven into the fabric of American society and culture. In the decade of 1955-1965, Americans grappled with racial inequality. The widespread nature of racial segregation impacted almost all areas of the country. The threat posed by racism was reflected in daily activities. For instance, modes of transportation were segregated to cater to black and white persons. Specific sidewalks and restaurants became predominantly either black or white. Institutional racism was also developed in hiring firms and other companies. Blacks became synonymous with certain job descriptions, especially those offered by construction companies. While the blacks grappled with blue-collar jobs, white persons reveled in white-collar opportunities. In some instances, blacks were denied medical services in certain institutions. The whites received preferential treatment in several establishments within American society.
The growing number of black persons within the U.S. posed a threat to the superiority and dominance of the white community. Consequently, all types of segregation measures were adopted to suppress the growth and morale of black communities. Elements of master-slave relationships still existed within society. The extent of racial inequality became extreme when blacks began suffering injustices from institutions enacted to support all citizens within the country.
Historical Context and the Development of Racism
The historical context of systemic racism in America is deeply rooted in the institution of slavery, which laid the foundation for racial discrimination and inequality. The transatlantic slave trade, which forcibly brought millions of Africans to America, created a racial hierarchy that placed white people at the top and black people at the bottom. This racial stratification was reinforced through laws and social norms that perpetuated the notion of white superiority and black inferiority.
Academic Theories on Systemic Racism
To understand the complexities of systemic racism, it is essential to explore various academic theories. One such theory is the Social Identity Theory proposed by Henri Tajfel and John Turner. This theory suggests that individuals derive a sense of identity and self-esteem from their group memberships, which can lead to in-group favoritism and out-group discrimination. In the context of systemic racism, white Americans have historically viewed themselves as the dominant in-group, leading to the marginalization of black Americans as the out-group.
Another relevant theory is Institutional Racism, first articulated by Stokely Carmichael and Charles V. Hamilton in their 1967 book “Black Power: The Politics of Liberation.” Institutional racism refers to the systemic policies and practices within institutions that disproportionately disadvantage racial minority groups. This form of racism is embedded in the policies and practices of social and political institutions, such as the criminal justice system, education system, and labor market.
The Impact of Racial Segregation
Racial segregation, a key component of systemic racism, has had profound effects on the social and economic well-being of black Americans. The policy of “separate but equal” established by the Plessy v. Ferguson Supreme Court decision in 1896 legally sanctioned racial segregation, leading to the establishment of separate schools, neighborhoods, and public facilities for blacks and whites. However, the facilities and services provided to black Americans were invariably inferior to those provided to whites, perpetuating a cycle of disadvantage.
The Critical Race Theory (CRT), developed by legal scholars such as Derrick Bell and Kimberlé Crenshaw, provides a framework for examining the relationship between race, law, and power. CRT posits that racism is not an aberration but a normal and ingrained feature of society. It challenges the notion of colorblindness and emphasizes the importance of contextualizing legal and social issues within a historical and cultural framework.
Psychological Effects of Racism
The psychological effects of systemic racism on black Americans are profound and multifaceted. The concept of Internalized Racism, as described by William E. Cross in his Nigrescence model, refers to the internalization of negative stereotypes and beliefs about one’s racial group. This can lead to low self-esteem, a diminished sense of self-worth, and mental health issues such as depression and anxiety.
Stereotype Threat, a concept developed by Claude Steele and Joshua Aronson, refers to the anxiety and concern that individuals may feel when they are at risk of confirming negative stereotypes about their racial group. This anxiety can impair performance and perpetuate disparities in academic and professional outcomes. For black Americans, the constant exposure to negative stereotypes and discrimination can create a hostile and stressful environment that hinders their ability to succeed.
Economic Disparities and Racism
Economic disparities between black and white Americans are a direct consequence of systemic racism. The Dual Labor Market Theory posits that the labor market is divided into two segments: the primary market, characterized by stable, well-paying jobs with opportunities for advancement, and the secondary market, characterized by low-paying, unstable jobs with little opportunity for advancement. Black Americans have historically been overrepresented in the secondary labor market, leading to economic instability and limited upward mobility.
The practice of Redlining, a discriminatory practice by which banks and insurance companies refuse or limit loans, mortgages, and insurance within specific geographic areas, particularly inner-city neighborhoods, further exacerbated economic disparities. Redlining, which was institutionalized by the Federal Housing Administration (FHA) in the 1930s, denied black Americans access to homeownership and wealth accumulation, creating a significant racial wealth gap that persists today.
Education and Racism
Educational disparities are another significant aspect of systemic racism. The Cultural Capital Theory, developed by Pierre Bourdieu, suggests that access to cultural capital—non-financial social assets such as education, intellect, and style of speech—affects an individual’s ability to succeed in society. Black Americans have historically been denied access to quality education, limiting their cultural capital and perpetuating social and economic inequalities.
The landmark Supreme Court case Brown v. Board of Education (1954) declared racial segregation in public schools unconstitutional, yet the promise of desegregation has not been fully realized. Many schools remain de facto segregated due to residential segregation and disparities in school funding. The lack of access to quality education for black students has long-term implications for their economic opportunities and social mobility.
Health Disparities and Racism
Health disparities between black and white Americans are another manifestation of systemic racism. The Social Determinants of Health framework posits that health outcomes are influenced by a range of social, economic, and environmental factors. Black Americans face significant barriers to accessing quality healthcare, leading to disparities in health outcomes. These barriers include discrimination within the healthcare system, lack of access to health insurance, and socioeconomic factors that affect health, such as housing and employment.
Conclusion
In conclusion, the legacy of systemic racism in America is a complex and multifaceted issue that affects all aspects of life for black Americans. From economic and educational disparities to psychological and health impacts, systemic racism creates significant barriers to equality and justice. By examining various academic theories, we can gain a deeper understanding of the mechanisms that perpetuate racism and work towards creating a more equitable society. The struggle against systemic racism requires a comprehensive approach that addresses the historical, social, and institutional factors that sustain racial inequality.