Cesium is a lethal chemical that is used in industrial/energy/healthcare industries and it is important to know how to handle/maintain/dispose of it. The first discovery of cesium was in 1860 by a man named Fustov Kirchhoff. It has a silvery gold color and is soft and ductile. Its atomic number is 55 and there are 32 isotopes. Without a heat source, if cesium is at room temperature it is a liquid. The melting point of cesium is 28.44 C and its boiling point is 671 C. The substance is stable under normal natural conditions. Most importantly, however, cesium is the most electropositive of all the elements. From a safety standpoint, this is a dangerous element for its explosive reaction with cold water. While cesium is not abundant in the environment, it is more common than certain elements that are more known such as arsenic, iodine, and uranium (“Cesium (Cs) – Chemical properties, Health and Environmental effects”, 2016). It occurs naturally from erosion and the weathering of certain rocks and minerals. It can, however, be released into the air during nuclear accidents and nuclear weapons testing. The natural form of cesium is not radioactive, but can be made radioactive in a lab setting. Today, cesium is currently obtained by the extraction of the mineral pollucite which comes mainly from Bernic Lake, Manitoba in Canada, with some coming from South-West Africa (“Cesium (Cs) – Chemical properties, Health and Environmental effects”, 2016). Cesium is then extracted from the pollucite mainly by three methods, “acid digestion, alkaline decomposition, and direct reduction” (“Cesium”, 2016).
Cesium is considered a hazardous waste since it is cited as one by DOT. Some of the hazards that accompany this substance are that it is highly flammable, reactive, and has an explosion hazard. In the presence of air, cesium will react violently and will ignite spontaneously. However, when exposed to water, it reacts explosively. This means that cesium must be stored and transported in isolation from other chemicals or substances that could be possible reactants. Also, if there is a fire where there is stored cesium, you should not use water directly on the fire.
Currently, cesium is used in industries as a catalyst promoter (a catalyst that boosts the performance of other metal oxides). It’s more worldwide use, however, is cesium formate brines for high-density/temperature/pressure oil and gas wells. Cesium is also used for the hydrogenation of organic compounds and can be found in certain industries as a way to remove traces of oxygen from vacuum tubes and light bulbs. Other industries use cesium for practical uses that may be exposed to the population, such as for the production of optical glasses and as a radiation source for the treatment of cancer. It has also been known to be used in energy production such as nuclear fission in nuclear power plants. Primarily though I am going to describe the process of how cesium, sometimes in the form of cesium formate, is used in petroleum drilling. Since most of the cesium used in petroleum drilling is being exposed to the earth and it’s not so favorite friends, air and water, the non-radioactive form is used as a formation fluid. These aqueous solutions of cesium formate are perfect when used for drilling as it can withstand the high downhole pressures and temperatures. The function of the cesium formate is to lubricate drill bits, bring rock cuttings to the surface, and maintain pressure on the formation during drilling of the well (“Cesium”, 2016). Cesium formate is the heaviest of the clear alkali formate fluids which means it can be blended with potassium and sodium formates (“Cesium”, 2016). This allows for weighting agents such as barite, which can cause damage to tools and the producing formation, to not be required. The cesium formate that is used instead is biodegradable and reclaimable and can be recycled which is important considering its $4,000 per barrel price (“Cesium”, 2016). This allows for companies to have a better formate that does not damage the environment and yet is better for petroleum drilling of wells.
The health hazards of radioactive cesium cannot be made clearer than the two major catastrophes that have happened in the last thirty years, the Chernobyl Nuclear Incident of 1986 in Russia and the Fukushima nuclear power plant accident of 2011 in Japan. The worst nuclear accident in history, the Chernobyl disaster, was on April 26, 1986. The disaster was caused by a surge of power during a reactor systems test which caused a reactor to overheat and convert the water that is used to cool the reactor into steam which eventually led to an explosion in the facility. This caused for an immediate evacuation of around 115,000 people following the explosion with most having to leave everything behind. In later years there was roughly around 220,000 people had to also be evacuated. This explosion caused cesium-134, cesium-137, and iodine-131 to be released from the reactor and spew over 11,351 mi^2. Two workers died immediately from the explosion that worked inside the reactor, while roughly 28 more deaths happened within four months due to radiation exposure (Science, 2016). However, there is an estimated number of 4,000 people that will eventually die, as of 2016, due to radiation caused by the disaster. This is due to the fact that cesium-137 has a half-life of 30 years and some 500,000 people have moved back near where they were evacuated and are still being exposed to levels that exceed the normal limit. This exposure also has been thought to cause a majority of the 6,000 cases of thyroid cancer in areas surrounding the site. For an overall death count, the Chernobyl Union of Ukraine, which is a non-governmental body, has estimated that the present death toll from the disaster is roughly 734,000 (“Factbox: Key facts on Chernobyl nuclear accident”, 2016). The most surprising statistic, however, is that thyroid cancer skyrocketed to around 7,000 cases surrounding Belarus, Russia, and Ukraine by 2005. This is significant as thyroid cancer is a very rare disease in children as it typically occurs between the ages of 20-50 years. With this information in mind, the Fukushima disaster in 2011 caused a similar increase in thyroid cancer among female infants that were exposed. During the Fukushima disaster, an earthquake off the coast of Japan caused a fifty-foot wall of water to hit the coast which flooded backup diesel generators on the site. This caused four of the six nuclear reactors to experience a blackout. The blackout that lasted for days caused three of the reactors to experience a “meltdown” due to the lack of electricity which allowed for the reactors to be cooled. This caused the release of cesium-134 and cesium-137, both of which only exist in the environment due to humankind. While there were nuclear tests conducted decades before the accident accounting for much of the cesium-137, the cesium-134 that is still found in much of the environment surrounding the plant and even levels in the ocean are from the Fukushima disaster. The isotope cesium-134 has a half-life of two years, which means that since it was released in the ocean, it is now on the coast of the United States. However because of the two types of cesium and the rest of the radioactive materials that spewed from the reactors, the health effects that it has caused is an increase of 4% (the most contaminated areas) in all solid cancers among females exposed as infants, an increase of 6% in breast cancer among females exposed as infants, an increased risk of 7% in males exposed as infants, and a staggering increase of up to 70% in thyroid cancer among females exposed as infants. Normally the risk over the lifetime of a female for thyroid cancer is 0.75%. Now with both of these disasters relating to radioactive cesium, the CDC stated that you are not likely to develop any health effects that could be related to stable cesium itself. The point that I am trying to make with these two disasters that have happened is that radioactive cesium is deadly to anyone that is exposed. Whether it is acute radiation exposure or minute chronic exposure to cesium, cancer, and reproductive abnormalities have occurred. Now even if you take into account the normal statistical average of cancer rates and embryo/fetus abnormalities, it is clear that exposure to cesium is lethal and every method should be used to eliminate any and all exposure.
For the current OSHA PEL, you have to understand that Cesium-137 (radioactive cesium) is a source of ionizing radiation. This means that a person can only be subject to a certain amount of ionizing radiation in a calendar quarter according to OSHA standards 1910.1096. This specific amount means you need to understand that 1 millirem = .001 rem. The current rems per calendar quarter for the whole body is 1 ¼ rems. Now for an employer to have to label an area as a radiation hazard, according to 1910.1096 (d)(3)(ii), “any area that is accessible to personnel, in which there exists radiation at such levels that a major portion of the body could receive in any 1-hour dose in excess of 5 millirems, or in any 5 consecutive days a dose in excess of 100 millirems” (“Ionizing radiation. – 1910.1096 | Occupational Safety and Health Administration”, 2016). Now as I stated before that the non-radioactive form of cesium used in petroleum drilling has no known health effects due to exposure, OSHA does not have a specific PEL for cesium formate.
Some of the preventative measures that should be taken in order to reduce exposure and minimized the dose that an employee could encounter is by making sure that radioactive sources that are used in industrial applications are sealed in a “protective housing” to minimize radiation dose and to protect that the capsule is away from danger or potential damage. There is no special personal protective equipment that is needed as the radioactive cesium that is used is sealed in a container that permits no related hazardous health exposure to the person. However, when there could be possible exposure, proper PPE such as a lead vest, full suit, and chemical resistant gloves may be needed. The persons handling the cesium, according to the National Fire Protection Association, should wear gloves, full suit, vapor respirator that is approved and certified, and a face shield in case of a breach in the capsule (“Material Safety Data Sheet”, 2016). However, if there is a breach in the capsule and there is a spill/leak you should alert every person in the immediate area, confine the spill, place a barrier at a safe distance from the source holder (around 5 meters minimum), identify the area as a radioactive hazard, and contact the local hazardous waste clean-up company (“Radioactive Material Safety Data Sheet”, 2016). If a person was to get cesium on their skin they should flush the skin with water for at least 15 minutes and remove all contaminated clothing/shoe. If a person was exposed to cesium in the eyes, they should flush their eyes with water for at least 15 minutes while occasionally lifting the upper and lower eyelids while flushing to remove any of the substance that could have gone around the eye. If a person was to ingest cesium, they should be given 2-4 cups of milk or water if they are conscious and alert. If a person was to inhale cesium they should be removed from the area and get to fresh air immediately, if they are not breathing they should be given artificial respiration (via mechanical, manual, or mouth to mouth). All of the above listed first aid measures should seek medical attention immediately after or during treatment of the affected area/persons.
In conclusion, cesium (radioactive) is a dangerous, lethal, ignitable, explosive chemical that needs to be handled carefully with training focused on its properties and its health effects on the body. Even with the non-radioactive form of cesium, employer and employees should use safe practices when handling the cesium as if it splashes on the skin, eyes, or is inhaled can still cause damage to the body. This is why training with either from is essential to workplace safety. Control measures such as quarantining cesium away from unauthorized personnel and away from other chemicals that could react with it are essential. As well, understanding what has happened in the past can only help people succeed in the future when handling and trying to minimize exposure to people worldwide.
Works Cited (APA Style)
- Ionizing radiation. – 1910.1096 | Occupational Safety and Health Administration. (2016). Osha.gov. Retrieved 28 October 2016, from https://www.osha.gov/pls/oshaweb/owadisp.show_document?p_table=STANDARDS&p_id=10098
- Cesium. (2016). USGS. Retrieved 28 October 2016, from http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2004/1432/2004-1432.pdf
- Cesium (Cs) – Chemical properties, Health and Environmental effects. (2016). Lenntech.com. Retrieved 28 October 2016, from http://www.lenntech.com/periodic/elements/cs.htm
- Factbox: Key facts on Chernobyl nuclear accident. (2016). Reuters. Retrieved 28 October 2016, from http://www.reuters.com/article/uk-nuclear-chernobyl-facts-idUSTRE72E69R20110315
- Material Safety Data Sheet. (2016). Sciencelab.com. Retrieved 28 October 2016, from http://www.sciencelab.com/msds.php?msdsId=13280
- Periodic Table of Elements: Los Alamos National Laboratory. (2016). Periodic.lanl.gov. Retrieved 28 October 2016, from http://periodic.lanl.gov/55.shtml
- Radioactive Material Safety Data Sheet. (2016). ULG. Retrieved 28 October 2016, from http://www.ipnas.ulg.ac.be/garnir/pdf/SECURITE_SOURCES/Cs137.pdf
- Science, L. (2016). Chernobyl: Facts About the Nuclear Disaster. Live Science. Retrieved 28 October 2016, from http://www.livescience.com/39961-chernobyl.html
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2016-11-15-1479176044