BIOL 4065 Sustainability and Complexity: Take Home Test 2
1. Reductionist methods of analysis involve dividing complex problems into their smaller and simpler components to understand the whole. As discussed in class, the world is too complex to be using reductionist methods to achieve sustainability because it ignores the interactions that happen between the parts of a whole. Examples of the world being too complex for reductionist methods include consciousness, the field of science, dealing with drugs in society, living systems, modelling of systems, and hierarchies.
Consciousness:
Emergent properties are one of the many components that make the world complex. They are qualities of a system that are only observed when looking at the whole. Since emergent properties cannot be seen when analyzing only the parts of a system, it is difficult to achieve sustainability because there is not a complete understanding of the properties of the systems involved using a reductionist method. Consciousness is an example of an emergent property that cannot be analyzed without looking at a whole. For example, when a body is divided into smaller parts, there are no emergent properties. Rather you have muscle, bone and organs each existing separately. It is only when these components are assembled to form a human body that consciousness emerges. Consciousness adds to the complexity of the system that cannot be observed from reductionism because it equates to more than the sum of its parts.
The Field of Science:
In science, the general school of though is that biology can be broken down into a series of chemical reactions, and those reactions are determined by physics. Physics is considered the basis of science because everything can be broken down into smaller parts to the sub-atomic level. As discussed in class, much of the success in physics comes from being able to restrict and using non-living matter, such as Newton disregarding the other planets when determining the laws of gravity. Although it is possible to break concepts into very small parts, there has been no proof of an absolute reduction because it is impossible to describe one particle without another. These issues suggest that there are cracks in the paradigm where reductionist methods cannot answer all problems, but a systems framework may. Rosen suggests that biology will become the trunk of science, where we consider the interactions of systems rather than parts.
The Drug Epidemic:
Reductionist approaches have a tendency to find the simplest solution for a complex problem, which ends up leading to many unforeseen consequences. For example, the solution for drugs in society was to put people in prison. This resulted in many low-level criminals taking up space in prisons and in the end, diverting tax-payer money towards expanding prisons. This simple solution to a complex problem removed many individuals from society that could have made positive contributions if another solution had been applied. Imprisonment for low level crimes resulted in economic and social downsides because a simple solution is not appropriate for a problem that spans many disciplines.
Living Systems:
Living systems have been approached with a reductionist method in science. Living organisms are reduced to the genetic level where it is thought that all traits that exist in an organism must exist at the molecular level, so observations at the organismal or community level are less important. This reductionist approach fails to include emergent properties that result from organisms interacting with each other and with their environment. A holistic approach suggests that living systems are best understood when viewed as one self-regulating system because the interactions and emergent properties are evident. The assumption that organisms are nothing more than their parts leaves a gap in our ability to understand the complex interactions that exist within living systems.
Modelling of Systems
Modelling of complex systems supports the idea that the world is not fully analyzable by reductionist methods because a complex system is characterized by at least one non-computable element. As a result, it is impossible to create a completely accurate model. Although many models of complex systems provide useful information despite the omission of some elements, the element of uncertainty will always remain. Complex systems are dynamic and as interconnected elements change, it creates this inherently unpredictable system. Using the reductionist approach, modelling only involves simple systems, which are no more than the sum of their parts. Simple machines are predicative because of the ignorance of interactions, and therefore do not create accurate models. Omitting parts of a system does not necessarily make a model false if it remains useful, however simplifying it to the point of reductionism may render the model useless.
Hierarchies:
Hierarchies refers to systems that exist within systems, resulting in emergent traits from these interactions. The smaller systems within a large system are limited by the larger scale, but still contribute to the dynamic properties of the overall system. For example, a cell could be considered a system, with subsystems such as proteins within it. Amino acid sequences are then the subsystems within the proteins. A reductionist approach would consider only one level at a time, which fails to acknowledge that each of these systems cannot function on their own. Dividing them into smaller parts without considering their connected nature results in an understanding of composition, but not function. When applying this approach to larger scale models such as the economy, ignoring small businesses and focusing on only the large corporations within an industry will not result in a thorough understanding of how the system works. A better understanding of the patterns within hierarchies may contribute to achieving sustainability.
3. A) Marine biodiversity is a valuable resource for humans, however there is currently a decline in marine biodiversity resulting from human activity (World Ocean Review, 2010). Climate change, the fishing industry, and pollution are some of the major causes of the decline.
Complexity theory is important in maintaining marine biodiversity because the ocean provides many ecosystem services that interact with other systems. For example, algae are a primary producer which provide energy to marine life, and in turn, humans. A small change such as the introduction of a new species can have detrimental effects when the interactions are not considered. For example, lionfish were accidently introduced to North American waters and the repercussions were not understood until they had taken over many of the coral reefs. Lionfish are increasing ecosystem stress that already exists from human activities, and as a result are causing an economic decline in the fishing industry (Morris & Whitfield, 2009). Using complexity theory when attempting to deal with problems such as the invasive lionfish helps to find solutions without creating more problems. Since system interactions have been considered, the solution should have only positive impacts.
Transdisciplinary thinking is important when addressing marine biodiversity loss seeing that ocean ecosystems interact with many social aspects, in addition to ecological aspects. Some of these aspects include politics, ethics, and economics. For example, if fish populations are declining at an unsustainable rate due to overfishing, it would make sense to reduce the fishing quota for the area. The problem is that these fish are the main source of income for a poor village, so by reducing the amount they are allowed to fish, they are further impoverished and their economy is stalled. Transdisciplinary thinking helps to consider all the factors that will be impacted by changes and determine the limits that ensure ethical, economic, and ecological prosperity.
Sustainability ensures that the current generation is able to grow while ensuring that resources will be available indefinitely for future generations to use. Sustainability is useful in reducing marine biodiversity loss because it ensures that the ecosystems will be resilient. By preventing the fish stocks from reaching levels that cannot rebound, the fishing industry will reduce its impact on marine biodiversity loss while still holding economic importance for current and future generations.
B) Terrestrial biodiversity loss can be addressed using sustainability, complexity theory, and transdisciplinary approaches similar to marine biodiversity loss. One of the main causes of terrestrial biodiversity loss is deforestation. Forests are home to many species of plants and animals, and as these habitats are destroyed, so are the ecological services that are gained from them. Sustainability is important in addressing terrestrial biodiversity loss when considering natural resources such as forests. The goal should be to determine the amount of resources that can be extracted from the forest while ensuring there will be resources left for future generations.
To mitigate terrestrial biodiversity loss, a transdisciplinary approach is useful when considering that looking at one element of the problem will not find a comprehensive solution. When only using knowledge from one discipline to analyze an issue that arises from diverse sources, the interrelated issues are ignored. It is beneficial to understand how a problem such a biodiversity loss is connected to other disciplines besides biology. As mentioned by Wells (2013), when approaching a problem with only one discipline in mind, it is possible to view that there are issues, however the scope of the problem is only truly understood when the observations from all disciplines are combined. When thinking of deforestation, we must consider the impact of habitat loss, resource loss, and cultural value of the land. Transdisciplinary thinking combines the social, economic, and ecological perspectives of the effect of terrestrial biodiversity loss to derive a solution that encompasses all disciplines.
Complexity theory is important when considering the self-organizing properties of a forest. There is a balance of life and death that is maintained to cycle nutrients and promote growth, however when humans remove a significant part of the forest, the self-organization is thrown out of balance. There is a limit to which natural resources can be removed without permanently impacting the system, however this limit is being surpassed, leading to the collapse of the ecosystem and the loss of biodiversity. Considering the self-organizing properties of a dynamic system like a forest will help to determine the limits of which the system can remain resilient.
C) Climate change is linked to the increasing anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions causing varying temperatures and extreme weather events. The increasing amount of greenhouse gas emissions is causing various systems to reach their threshold where resilience can no longer persist. For example, coral bleaching as a result of rising ocean temperatures and ocean acidification are thresholds being reached. To maintain the resiliency of these ecosystems, a sustainable limit of greenhouse gas emissions must be determined to bring other important systems away from their thresholds. Once these tipping points are passed, the ecosystem has lost its ability to recover. Sustainability can be achieved determining the amount of emissions that allows human productivity to continue without depleting natural resources and maintain ecosystems for future generations.
Complexity theory is useful when considering the uncertainty involved with climate change. Since ecosystems are dynamic, it is impossible to predict the exact impact of greenhouse gas emissions, especially when the interactions of those systems are not completely understood. Models can be generated to predict climate change, however they cannot fully account for the factors that exist with uncertainty. For example, sudden events such as methane bubble releases from the ocean cannot be foreseen with models (Wells, 2013). Complexity theory helps to identify these uncertainties and allows for predictions to be made with a variety of scenarios.
Transdisciplinary thinking also assists in identifying and predicting the outcomes of uncertainties. By combining knowledge from many disciplines, a better prediction can be generated for the outcome of a sudden event. As described by Wells (2013), climate change effects must be modelled so that they are combined with the economic and ecological impacts to grasp the whole scenario. These systems intersect so that a change in one will cause a change in another. The feedbacks between systems are difficult to analyze when considering only one discipline, so a transdisciplinary approach allows for multiple perspectives to make predictions about the uncertainties that lie within the feedbacks of climate change.
4. Wicked problems are problems that have no simple solution. They are complex and dynamic, resulting in new consequences arriving from trying to address the problem with incomplete solutions. Since they encompass many disciplines, it is difficult to find a solution that satisfies all stakeholders. Human survival in the Anthropocene has developed into a wicked problem because our actions are causing climate change, however a solution that is socially, ecologically, and economically acceptable does not yet exist. Examples of wicked problems linked to human survival include the dependence on fossil fuel powered cars, factory farming of livestock, and technology.
Cars:
Cars have become an integral part of society, especially in developed countries. As other countries develop and strive towards the North American lifestyle, individual transportation is increasing. As a result, carbon emissions are increasing as well. Despite the negative environmental consequences associated with the burning of fossil fuels and mass individualized transportation, there is no sufficient alternative available that meets the economic, social, and environmental needs of society. Simply stopping the use of cars does not fix the wicked problem, it just creates other problems.
Transportation is a large economic sector, with fossil fuel companies and automobile companies involved in getting people from once place to another. The industry creates jobs and provides many families with incomes, however it is also a major contributor of greenhouse gasses. If the solution to the problem caused by cars was to stop buying them, the economy would fail and many people would lose their jobs, creating more poverty. As noted by Camillus (2008), a wicked problem arises from many sources, and the economic dependency on the transportation industry is one of them, however only focusing on this cause will not find a suitable solution.
Cars are culturally important in society as well, seeing that they are used as a status symbol in society. When cars were first invented, only the richest could afford them, and as they became more affordable, the brand and the number of cars in your driveway defined your status. As cars become more accessible to people in developing countries, greenhouse gas emissions are bound to increase. The simple solution of not buying cars presents social and ethical issues because it is impossible to determine who is and who is not allowed to own a car. Denying people in developing countries the right to equal opportunity is not fair, yet neither is taking away that right from people in developed countries. A global shift in mindset is required to remove the social importance of cars and help find a solution to the wicked problem.
In brief, the wicked problem involving societal reliance on cars and fossil fuels cannot be fixed with a simple solution. There are social, economic, and environmental impacts that must be considered before a solution is implemented. Wicked problems lack a right answer, but all outcomes must be considered to find the best solution available.
Factory Farming of Livestock:
A wicked problem has arisen from factory farming where it is a necessary source of food, however our current practices harm the environment. The production of meat consumes a great amount of water, energy, and crops that could have been used for human nutrition. Although the environmental impact of the meat industry is high, it holds economic and cultural importance in society. A simple solution to the problem would be to encourage consumers to not eat meat, which reduces the problem from a multi-disciplinary problem to one with an easy solution. Complexity theory acknowledges that applying a simple solution to a wicked problem will just cause more problems.
Economically, meat is a higher value food than crops. The higher quality energy source allows meat to be priced higher and generate more revenue. In addition, the meat industry provides jobs and resources that are used in many other industries. For example, stopping meat production would impact the textile and furniture industry because the source of leather would no longer exist. Completely shutting down and industry is not a viable solution for the emissions and resource use because of the interactions between different industries. Overall, the economy would suffer, which is an undesirable consequence.
Animals and the consumption of animals holds an important place in many cultures. For example, a pig roast holds importance in Hawaiian culture because it brings friends and family together to celebrate a special event. The simple solution of stopping the consumption of meat would impede on this cultural tradition, which is not a viable solution. In addition, there are ethical issues that exist from restricting consumers from buying meat, such as inhibiting people from acting with their own discretion. Social and cultural implications cannot be ignored when finding solutions to wicked problems because the wrong simple solution will have negative repercussions.
In summary, factory farming of animals has negative environmental consequences, however the solution is not as simple as stopping the consumption of meat. The connections between meat, culture, and economic productivity will be affected if the wrong solution is implemented.
Technology:
Technology has created a wicked problem in which humans rely on advancements in technology to fix problems that they have created, rather than considering the issue from the source. The overreliance on technology is a wicked problem because there are no standard techniques available that would cause a paradigm shift towards accountability for human actions. Rather, humans rely on the fact that there will be a technological advancement that makes up for what they have done. The simple solution of assuming that an invention will fix our problems is not rational or sustainable.
A proposition for dealing with the high amount of greenhouse gas emissions is to develop carbon storing technology that mimics the way that nature is able to accommodate carbon dioxide (Mastroianni, 2015). Rather than finding a way to reduce emissions and decouple society from fossil fuels, the simple solution proposed is to continue consuming resources and producing emissions, but to keep them contained so they are not in the atmosphere. While this provides an immediate solution, the consequences that will arise in the future are not clear. There is not a thorough understanding of the ramifications of simply storing carbon emissions and how this will interact with ecosystems in the future.
In summary, humans rely on technology to fix environmental problems for future generations rather than trying to solve the initial problem. This creates a wicked problem where there is no accountability, and the consequences of these actions remain uncertain. There is currently no right answer when it comes to using technology to help with climate change, however there is too much uncertainty when only relying on technology as a solution.
5. Six main features of Newtonian science include the idea of linearity, feedback systems, predicative systems, the idea that all living organisms are machines, reductionism, and lacking purpose. With biology as the central trunk of science, as Rosen suggested, it is likely that these elements would change to include complexity theory.
Linearity:
Newtonian science focuses on linear relationships within a reactive paradigm, where everything exists because of cause and effect. As a result, the outcome is proportional to the strength of the cause. With the paradigm shift envisioned by Rosen, where biology is the central field in science, there would be a shift from observing linear systems to observing non-linear systems. As noted by Wells (2013), non-linear relationships are more common that linear ones in nature. An example of a non-linear relationship is the graph that relates climate change to time. There is a gradual increase for many years, followed by a large significant increase as we approach the present. A paradigm shift would improve science because the current Newtonian principles cannot be applied to non-linear systems. There are many more ways to be non-linear, so a better understanding of these relationships would help when addressing problems such as climate change.
Feedback Systems:
Newtonian science focusses on feedback systems, where systems use feedback to return to homeostasis after a change. This cause and effect systems fails to acknowledge the anticipatory capabilities of living systems. Rosen proposes that living systems are able to ‘read off the future’ because they can combine the knowledge of the past to anticipate what will happen in the future. Considering feedback and feedforward systems would improve science because it acknowledges the dynamic nature of complex systems. Gaining a better understanding of anticipating change from studying complex living systems will help when addressing climate change because it may result in knowledge from the past being used to anticipate moving forward.
Predicative Systems:
Predicative systems have linear interactions that function with the traditional ’cause and effect’mentality. They function as machines, where they are simply the sum of their parts, and there are no emergent properties. Newtonian science views systems as predicative, implying that they function simply and can be modelled. A Rosenean approach to science would consider impredicative systems, which cannot be modelled due to their complex nature. They have at least one aspect that cannot be calculated. They can be comprised of simple machines, yet the entire system is much more than a simple machine. Impredicative systems, such as living organisms, are anticipatory and can re-organize to remain intact based on self-reference (Poli, 2017). Studying self-reference in impredicative systems will contribute to a better understanding of living organisms, which comprise living systems. Knowledge about living systems from a complexity viewpoint is valuable when addressing sustainability and climate change.
The Machine Metaphor:
Newtonian science supports the idea that all living organisms are machines, and equate to nothing more than the sum of their parts. This idea is limiting because living organisms are far more complex than machines. They have emergent properties that arise from interactions with other systems, which creates an element of uncertainty, which is observed in impredicative systems. Rosen suggests that living organisms are more complex than machines because they are not controllable in the way that simple machines are. Considering the biological complexity of living organisms will improve science by acknowledging the connections between systems, resulting in more accurate modelling and predictions. A systems view of the world provides more insight than the machine metaphor, which can address complex problems that were not accurately represented by simple models and calculations.
Reductionism:
Newtonian science is characterized by its reductionist approach, where every concept or problem can be reduced to smaller parts that are more manageable. Reductionism supports the idea that the whole is nothing more than the sum of its parts. This ideology is contrary to hierarchical theory, which considers the dynamics between different levels of systems. By only considering the smaller parts, reductionism creates assumptions about the whole, whereas a holistic approach that would be applied in a paradigm shift would analyze the hierarchy on all levels rather than just the simplest. As discussed in class, if the interconnections of a system are severed during research, it is impossible to conclude the properties of the whole. As Rosen proposes, biology is best studied as a system of living things, where all levels are analyzed in connection with the whole, resulting in an overall understanding of the hierarchy. This approach changes science by providing insight about patterns of interaction, rather than focusing on what systems are made of. Although understanding the composition of a system is valuable knowledge, a paradigm shift to include complexity theory will help when addressing wicked problems.
Purpose:
Aristotle suggested that everything has a purpose, however this idea was rejected by Newtonian science, similarly to vitalism. Vitalism suggests that living systems have a non-reducible force within that makes them more than a machine, however since Newtonian science implies that life can be broken down into machines, this idea was deemed wrong. Rosen had a different approach, where he suggests that living systems are more than machines and they do serve a purpose. The interactions between systems imply that there is a purpose for each system, and the removal of one element will impact another. A paradigm shift in science would acknowledge that each element of a living system serves a purpose and reductionist methods of omission fail to acknowledge these connections.
6.
Has Achieved/ Could Achieve Sustainability Has Reduced/ Could Reduce Unsustainability
Energy Revolution Cuba could achieve sustainability in their energy sector by successfully decentralizing their energy sources, and by decarbonizing these sources. Decentralizing implies having many ways to produce energy, so that they are not relying on just one source. For example, having one nuclear power plant and fossil fuel does not leave room for error. Efforts are in place to achieve 24% renewable energy in Cuba by 2030 by implementing solar, wind, and biomass energy rather than fossil fuel (Cernasky, 2012). To further their sustainability efforts, Cuba must work towards energy sources that do not rely on carbon sources. This means finding alternative sources to biomass, such as hydro-electricity or more efficient solar and wind power. Achieving their renewable energy goal will contribute to Cuba achieving sustainability.
Energy Efficiency
Many efforts were made to reduce energy consumption in Cuba, which results in less energy needing to be produced. Some of the main efforts were switching lightbulbs in houses to compact fluorescent, and upgrading appliances to more energy efficient versions. As a result, the unsustainable amount of power that was being consumed has been reduced.
In addition, Cuba upgraded its electrical grid, which was using technology that was decades old (Ferris, 2015). These upgrades increased efficiency and resulted in more energy being produced from the same amount of resources. This reduced their unsustainable consumption of resources.
Green Energy Investments
Cuba is seeking investments from other countries to help achieve its sustainable energy goal. The switch to renewable sources is an expensive process, and hard to achieve alone in a country that has struggled since the collapse of the Soviet Union (Fieser & Dezem, 2016). Cuba could achieve a sustainable energy framework if they are able to obtain enough funding from investors. In addition to national sustainability, many of the techniques used can be applied to achieve sustainability in other developing countries. Green Energy Research
Bagasse, the byproduct of sugar production, is being used as a fuel for biomass energy. Although it is still a carbon source of energy, the amount of carbon dioxide produced is offset by the carbon dioxide absorbed while growing (Rainey, 2009). Using a by-product of another industry as an energy source reduces the unsustainability by repurposing with a positive outcome. Further research is being done on increasing the efficiency of decarbonized energy sources such as wind, hydro, and solar.
Agricultural Revolution Urban Gardens
After the collapse of the Soviet Union, Cuba was left without many of the resources they had come to rely on, such as chemical fertilizers. As a result, Cuba turned to low-input urban gardens, where food is grown in the city, making it easily accessible and affordable for residents. There are laws that prohibit the use of chemical pesticides within the city, making the urban gardens organic (Novo & Murphy, 1998). The success of the urban garden initiative has helped Cuba achieve food security in a difficult time.
Agroecology
Cubans adapted sustainable agricultural practices in a time where resources were limited. One of the most successful practices was using the knowledge of plant and pest interactions, as well as intercropping to decrease the need for pesticide. Although their large-scale agricultural practices do rely on off-farm resources more than the urban gardens, using agro-ecological knowledge has helped reduce unsustainability in the industry.
Environmental Revolution Conservation of Wetlands
Cuba places a lot of importance on the environment, and especially conserving the diverse ecosystems it has. Cuba has put great efforts into having the largest wetland conservation area in the world, in addition to many other protected lands (Cernansky, 2012). Preserving these areas has helped Cuba to gain a better understanding of its natural resources and how it can achieve sustainability. Reforestation
Many of the Cuban forests were destroyed for sugarcane plantations, however efforts are in place to reduce the impact of this deforestation through reforestation. Forests are being planted to promote biodiversity and conserve natural resources such as soil and water (Legon, 2012). These reforestation efforts would not have been required had deforestation not taken place, however Cuba is managing to reduce unsustainability through these efforts.
Green Legislation Public Involvement
To achieve sustainability, Cuba must involve the public in environmental decision making. Throughout Fidel Castro’s time in power, the public was not involved in decision making, however moving forward, it is beneficial to include their input (Travieso-Diaz, 1999). In doing so, they hope to develop environmental laws that can be enforced. Public involvement is facilitated by educating the public, which is an ongoing initiative. Environmental Education
Cuba strives to create awareness amongst the public about the environment and initiatives that are in place to conserve the environment. To reduce the unsustainability of public actions, raising awareness provides a sense of accountability. Cuba relies on the fact that ignorance is not a valid excuse for unsustainability. With people more aware of their actions, they make more sustainable choices. The education system is integrated throughout the city so that all are aware.
Law 33
Law 33 was implemented to make the citizens responsible for a clean environment alongside the state (Travieso-Diaz, 1999). Implementing this type of law creates accountability within the public. One of the goals of this legislation was to encourage the rational use of resources. This law was not effective seeing that there were no clear steps defined to achieve the goals. Moving forward, laws must clearly define a framework to enforce sustainability. Excessive Use Tax
In an effort to limit the amount of energy used, Cuba has a graduated pricing system depending on how much energy was consumed. The goal of this program is to discourage people from wasting energy, and in turn, resources. This reduces unsustainability by reducing the amount of energy that needs to be produced from sources such as fossil fuels.
References:
- Camillus, J. (2008). Strategy as a Wicked Problem. Harvard Business Review. Retrieved from: https://hbr.org/2008/05/strategy-as-a-wicked-problem
- Cernansky, R. (2012). Why Cuba’s Sustainability is not an Accident. Retrieved from: https://www.treehugger.com/environmental-policy/why-cuba-sustainability-not-accident.html
- Ferris, D. (2015). Cuba wants clean energy. Can the U.S. deliver? Energywire. Retrieved from: https://www.eenews.net/stories/1060020853
- Fieser, E., & Dezem, V. (2016). Cuba Turns to Foreign Investors to Boost Renewable Energy. Renewable Energy World. Retrieved from: http://www.renewableenergyworld.com/articles/2016/09/cuba-turns-to-foreign-investors-to- boost-renewable-energy.html
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urban_agriculture.pdf - Poli, R. (2017). Something about science: Mulling over impredicative systems. Ecological Complexity. DOI: 10.1016/j.ecocom.2017.05.002
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