Possible value conflicts within the coal sector and their relation to the design of our future energy system
S.J. Bekkers
Delft University of Technology
Delft, The Netherlands
Abstract ' Coal is next to oil responsible for the highest amount of energy consumption worldwide. The use of coal burdens the ecosystems and our need for energy is hampering the possibilities for future generations. To understand the design of our current and future energy systems, it is important to consider the values and the conflicts between those values that play a role into the design of our coal based systems. To come to these values a literature review is conducted. Dominant values within the coal sector are environmental sustainability, economic development and security of supply. Important value conflicts for design are between the value environmental sustainability and economic development and between environmental sustainability and security of supply. Those value conflict give insight in the complications of the transition toward a new energy system. Further and broader research is needed to discover more value conflicts within the coal sector that are important for the design of our future energy systems.
Keywords'Coal; Value Conflict; Design; Energy system; Literature Review
I. INTRODUCTION
All infrastructural systems are in place to add value. This added value is created by design, to address the needs of the companies involved, the needs of different users and the needs society has as a whole (Van de Poel, 2009). But what kind of value does a system add and what does this mean for the design criteria of a system? Are these values the same among the different parties involved and how do these values conflict?
One of the most important infrastructural systems that we know is the energy system. Because of the technical nature of the energy system, it is mostly evaluated and designed using technical and economic criteria (''liogerien'', Kaklauskas, ''treimikien'', & Bianchi, 2012). Hence, you could say that important factors in the energy system are technical and economical, such as economic efficiency and technical stability. But are economic efficiency and technical stability the principles needed to make the energy system valuable for society or are there other principles? This question becomes interesting looking at the current energy system in place. Coal is the leading source of electrical power within the world. It is a reliable, affordable and available source, which makes it very suitable to meet the ever-rising demand for energy within the world (Clemente & Clemente, 2013). Coal is responsible for the industrial revolution and countries who exploited their coal resources in this period are mostly developed countries (Jinke, Hualing, & Dianming, 2008). Energy systems based on coal can be seen as the first best solution for developing countries to meet their energy demand (Clemente & Clemente, 2013).
The problem of climate change has become one of the most important issues in the (western) world. The major cause of the climate problem is the burning of fossil fuels, with coal as the most popular and widely used fossil fuel world-wide (Jinke et al., 2008). It is widely accepted that change in energy systems will be essential in realising a low carbon energy future and mitigating the effect of climate change (Demski et al., 2015). In developed countries, sustainable development is a hot topic on the agenda and a coal phase-out is, in contradiction with developing countries, a reasonable way to meet their climate goals. In Germany for example an early coal phase out can reduce CO2 emissions (Heinrichs & Markewitz, 2015). These differences in standpoints can be the consequence of the different technical infrastructural systems in place, different characteristics of countries and differences in the perception of the added value of the coal system between developed and developing countries.
Values become more and more important in the decision making within the design of our future energy systems. In decision making, values can be described as an abstract set of principles, who allow us to resolve conflicts by suggesting which preferences are better (Ligtvoet et al., 2015). They provide us with the criteria, certain goals, to evaluate and distinguish options for decision making (Keeney, 1994). Within the scope of this paper a value generally denotes what something is worth in combination with the different opinions about that worth (Dietz, Fitzgerald, & Shwom, 2005). Values are defined from the abstract set of principles behind them. Different values select different sets of design options as best (van de Poel, 2015). In design, decisions need to be made about the different design options available, because a combination of all the options is often not feasible. Options can represent different goals, which can lead to a conflict between the options and therefore to a conflict between the values behind them. Within the scope of the paper a value conflict can be defined as a choice between at least two options for which at least two values are relevant as choice criteria (van de Poel, 2015). It is also possible two have two conflicting options within the same value.
This literature review paper will focus on the dominant values within the coal infrastructure system and discover how they conflict with each other to understand the relevance of these values for the design of our future energy system. The distinction in values between developing and developed countries will be discovered. The research question that this paper will aim on is: What values are dominant within the literature of the coal system and how do they conflict within and between each other and what does this mean for the design of our future energy system?
The methodology used in this literature review paper and the rationale behind the selection process of the literature is described In Chapter 2. The dominant values that are discovered out of the selected literature will be discussed in chapter 3. Chapter 4 will consider the possible value conflicts that arise within and between values. The answer to the research question, the discussion on the limitations of the literature review and recommendations for further research will be discussed in chapter 5.
II. METHODOLOGY
The literature review paper is based on a selection of literature about the Coal system originated from different countries. This chapter will discuss the selection process of the literature, the rationale behind the selection process and the rationale behind the selection of the individual literature.
As a starting point, the literature about values in coal, with the search term (values AND coal), is mostly very technical. Discussing technical characteristics such as calorific values, coking values and heating values. In order to come to relevant literature that helps to answer the questions the paper discusses, different search strategies in different databases. Table 1 presents an overview of the papers selected for the literature review, the dominant values within the papers, whether the research originate from a developing or developed country and the topic they handle.
The scope of the paper is on the dominant values in the literature about the coal system in the topics of coal based electricity production, coal production and overall coal consumption. To develop insight in the dominant values of the coal system a quick scan is conducted within different databases using different search terms. The databases employed in this paper are Scopus, Google scholar and ScienceDirect. As a starting point Scopus is consulted with the search term (coal AND public AND acceptance). Most literature within this search strategy is about Carbon Capture and Storage, the usable literature found is about a phase-out of coal-fired power plants (Heinrichs et al., 2017) and about coal mining in the Czech Republic (Frant''l, 2016). These articles are published in the journal Energy and the journal resources policy, both journals from Elsevier. ScienceDirect is the database linked to Elsevier and therefore, in combination with the diversity of subject areas, ScienceDirect was consulted to proceed in the selection procedure. The search terms, (coal AND value AND social); (coal AND consumption AND economic AND development); (lignite AND social); (coal AND consumption AND developing); (power AND production AND coal), are chosen very broad to formulate a start set of interesting literature. With this start set (Clemente & Clemente, 2013; Frant''l, 2016; Gurgul & Lach, 2011; Heinrichs et al., 2017; Kaldellis, Zafirakis, & Kondili, 2009) the recommendation tool of ScienceDirect is used to snowball towards the literature.
Values can be described as an abstract set of principles that allow us to resolve conflicts by suggesting which preferences are better (Ligtvoet et al., 2015). The hard part is to discover which preferences are better and how these insights can help in better understanding conflicts between values. The quick scan provided insights in the dominant values and clearly showed the influence of context on the differences of these values within the literature. When talking about context a difference in the selection of the literature is made between developed and developing countries. To provide a clear view on the values that are dominant within the literature and the conflicts that may arise, different parts of the coal system are considered and the separation between developing and developed countries is made. The separation of the different topics into the production of coal, the production of electricity and overall consumption is chosen to scope the review towards the values that represent the abstract principles that allow us to better understand the value conflicts within the coal sector. This study only addresses a small part of the literature available. With this scope, the paper tries to generate a relevant overview of the dominant values within the coal sector and how they conflict, also considering the differences between developing and developed countries. For every topic, a minimum of 6 papers will be examined.
III. DOMINANT VALUES IN THE COAL SECTOR
The values that are dominant within the literature selected are economic growth, security of supply and environmental sustainability. Other values that are present, but out of the scope for the analysis of the paper are presented in table 1. This chapter elaborates on the different set of principles behind the dominant values to better understand how they are present in the selected literature. The principles behind the dominant values differ between the articles, hence between different countries and might be important in understanding the value conflicts. Table 2 gives an overview on how the dominant values relate to different set of principles about coal and in which article these principles address the value behind them.
The value Economic development, when talking about a system, can be defined as a system that is beneficial to the economic status/finances of its users (Ligtvoet et al., 2015). A variety of the papers examined, discusses the benefits or costs of coal to the economic status and to the finances of a country. The literature that focusses on the overall consumption, discusses the interaction between coal consumption and Economic development within different countries. The principles behind the value are based on whether coal is as a driver for economic development or not. Clemente & Clemente (2010) argue that coal is the cornerstone for economic development. Jinke et al. (2010) add to this notion that every country who exploited their coal reserves in the 19th century is now a developed country and Xu et al. (2016) links the rapid economic growth of China to the coal consumption. Coal causes economic development is the principle that addresses the value of the coal system as economic development.
There are also papers who are suggesting the opposite and are arguing that coal consumption has a negative impact on economic development (Apergis & Payne, 2010; Wolde-Rufael, 2010). Next to that, papers discuss the causal relationship between Economic development and a rise in coal consumption (Apergis & Payne, 2010; Jin-ke et al., 2009; Wolde-Rufael, 2010).
In the power production segment, two out of six articles have principles that address the value of the coal sector as economic development. The power sector is the driver of a lot of economic activity around the world. Kami''ski & Kude''ko (2010) are calling the economy of poland a ''coal based'' economy. Approximately 95% of the electricity in Poland is generated by coal-fired power plants (Kami''ski & Kude''ko, 2010). In China, the fastest growing economy of the world, coal is essential for the economic development of the country (Wang & Nakata, 2009). Hence, both developed countries as developing countries are obtaining the coal system as valuable for economic development.
The value economic development is also present in the coal production segment. The economic effects from coal mining are mostly local effects that eventually lead to nationwide effects. Hard Coal mining has for example positive effects on employment and infrastructure in the area of Chatkal in Krchystan (Tiainen et al., 2014). Lignite has, in contradiction with hard coal, a local character because of the relatively high transportation costs compared to its extraction costs and heating value (Konstantinos Kavouridis, 2008). This characteristics make the use of lignite only economically feasible within short distances from the lignite mines. Lignite will continu to be a contribution to the economic suply in Greece (Konstantinos Kavouridis, 2008). In Germany a very intensive and complex rehabilitation of the mining sector, which costed 6.4 billion euros, took place (Harfst & Wirth, 2011). This immense project reflects the impact on the economy of Coal mining and the path dependency many countries create in becoming economically depended on coal. Coal mining itself boosts the local economy and the exportation of hard coal generates huge revenues.
The second dominant value Evironmental sustainability can be defined as: The system does not burden ecosystems, so that the needs of current generations do not hinder future generations (Ligtvoet et al., 2015). The coal system is responsible for a large amount of greenhouse gas emissions, the main driver for climate change. The literature agrees on the fact that the production of coal, coal-based power generation and the generall consuption harms society and intereferes with the value environmental sustainability. The principles behind achieving environmental sustainability differ within the literature.
Mahapatra et al. (2012) argue that the non-health and health impacts of coal based power generation need to be taken into account in order to come to a sustainable power generation system. The literature from countries who have a large share of coal in their energy portofolios is mostly arguing for cleaner coal technologies to achieve a sustainable energy system in the future (Alderman, 2013; Chen & Xu, 2010; Kami''ski & Kude''ko, 2010; K Kavouridis & Koukouzas, 2008; Konstantinos Kavouridis, 2008; Wang & Nakata, 2009). The literature about coal mining is mostly discussing the environmental impact of mining and the public acceptance. Hence, Environmental sustainability of the region is very important in the success of coal mining projects (Badera & Koco'', 2014; Tiainen et al., 2014). H''k & Aleklett (2009) have already adjusted there view on the coal reserves towards one restricted by environmental regulations and public acceptance. Jinke et al. (2008;2009) is discovering the causal relationship between coal and economic development in order to justify a coal phase out in both developed as developing countries. This causaul relation is also studied by Apergis & Payne (2010) and Wolde-Rufael (2010). An interesting contradiction in the literature is that on one side, it is about getting away from coal and on the other side the literature is in favour of clean coal technologies.
Security of supply is the final dominant value focussed on within the the scope of the paper. Security of supply can be seen as the energy security of a particular country or region, the defenition from the International Energy Agency (2017) states: '' the uninterrupted availability of energy sources at an affordable price''. Most of the literature that contains security of supply as an value is about the strength of coal because of its availability and affordability. Coal is a stable factor in the security of supply around the world (Alderman, 2013; Apergis & Payne, 2010; Chen & Xu, 2010; Clemente & Clemente, 2013; K Kavouridis & Koukouzas, 2008; Konstantinos Kavouridis, 2008; Wang & Nakata, 2009; Wolde-Rufael, 2010). The selected literature generally agrees on the dominant roal of coal in the energy security.
IV. POSSIBLE CONFLICTS BETWEEN AND WITHIN VALUES
The Dominant values within the literature with their different principles give rise to different value conflicts, different options to choose from for designing our future energy systems. There can be conflicts within values and conflicts between values that are important for the design. Within the dominant value economic development, the principles about the added value of the coal system are mostly about coal as a driver for economic development (Clemente & Clemente, 2013; Harfst & Wirth, 2011; Kami''ski & Kude''ko, 2010; Konstantinos Kavouridis, 2008; Tiainen et al., 2014; Wang & Nakata, 2009). Wolde-Rufael (2010) find prove for what is stated above in the countries Japan and India and the opposite is true for China and South-Korea. The principle that coal consumption causes economic growth is also conflicting with the principle Apergis & Payne (2010) are arguing about. They state that the impact of coal consumption on economic growth is negative due to an inefficient and excessive use of coal consumption as well as the possibility that the environmental costs of coal usage outweigh the immediate economic benefit of coal usage. Another remarkable conflict within the value economic development is about the path dependency that occurred due to the organization of the energy system in combination with the large-scale use of Coal. The energy system, hence the coal system is organized without internalizing a lot of the external costs down the line of mining, transportation and consumption. These negative externalities of coal mining and coal-bases power production are affecting human health, crops and building materials (Mahapatra et al., 2012). These damages come with costs and without the internalization of these costs, the users will not experience the system as a system that is beneficial to the economic status/finances of its users. The use of coal does not internalize the external coasts caused by the harm it does. This is an economic inefficient solution, which hampers economic development. There is an important clash whether coal causes economic development or not. Insights in the reason behind this clash are needed to understand how the value economic development can be addressed in the design of our future energy system.
Another conflict occurs within the value environmental sustainability. This conflict is not about the fact that the use of coal is jeopardizing the energy system in becoming environmental sustainable and therefore causing climate change to happen, but about the solution that is linked to the problem. Heinrichs & Markewitz (2015) and Jinke et al (2008) are arguing for a coal phase-out because of the very polluting nature of it. The literature is also providing another solution, namely clean coal technologies (Alderman, 2013; Chen & Xu, 2010; Kami''ski & Kude''ko, 2010; K Kavouridis & Koukouzas, 2008; Konstantinos Kavouridis, 2008; Wang & Nakata, 2009). The latter is only a solution to mitigate the effect of climate change and conflicts with the other solution and with the value environmental sustainability. The coal system is burdening the ecosystems and in a way that the needs of current generations hinder future generations. The reasons behind the conflicts in the different solutions proposed, are important for further research to understand the different design options and constraints that the value environmental sustainability introduces for the design of our future energy system.
Conflicts that are present between environmental sustainability and economic development are about the consequences of the general use of coal. The general use of coal leads to economic development (Clemente & Clemente, 2013; Harfst & Wirth, 2011; Kami''ski & Kude''ko, 2010; Konstantinos Kavouridis, 2008; Tiainen et al., 2014; Wang & Nakata, 2009). On the same time, it leads to pollution which hampers the energy system to be environmental sustainable (Harfst & Wirth, 2011; Mahapatra et al., 2012). Another conflict is about the regulations that follow from a preference in the value environmental sustainability. These regulations stimulate cleaner technologies to satisfy our energy demand and therefore limit our coal reserves by restrictions in the use of it (H''k & Aleklett, 2009). This limitation effects the use of coal and since many countries have an economy based on coal, the environmental sustainability in the policy design hampers economic development in those countries.
These environmental regulations also impede the security of supply in those countries, which gives rise to a conflict between the values security of supply and environmental sustainability. In china for example coal is needed to ensure the security of supply (Chen & Xu, 2010; Wang & Nakata, 2009). Europe is also still heavily dependent on coal and there are a lot more countries depending on it to achieve their security of supply(Alderman, 2013; Apergis & Payne, 2010; Clemente & Clemente, 2013; K Kavouridis & Koukouzas, 2008; Wolde-Rufael, 2010).
The last conflict identified is between the values economic development and security of supply. The use of coal causes damages to human health, crops and building materials and therefore actuates negative externalities (Mahapatra et al., 2012). Coal is mainly used because it is abundant and affordably, it has a positive effect on the security of supply (Clemente & Clemente, 2013). The definition of economic development is about a system that is beneficial to the economic status/finances of its users (Ligtvoet et al., 2015). With these externalities, the system is not beneficial to the economic status of its users and leads to an inefficient market economy. The last three conflicts are very important in the design of our future energy system. Understanding these conflicts is essential to discover a design that can address all the dominant values in the design.
V. CONCLUSION
The literature review conducted, aims at identifying the dominant values within the selected literature about the coal system and at discovering the conflicts that are present within and between these dominant values. These value conflicts have a meaning for the design of our future energy system. The dominant values found do not have one straightforward definition they mostly have an ambiguous nature.
The discussion whether coal really causes economic development is dominant within the literature selected. The variety in opinion about this notion is mostly driven by whether a country is depending on coal within their energy security or not and whether coal is available and affordable. Papers originated from countries who have an energy system that is depended on coal are mostly researching the design options of clean coal technologies and the relation of economic development and coal consumption. On the other hand, countries who are not that dependent on coal and have the means to achieve energy security with other alternatives are mostly in favour of a coal phase out or other environmental regulations. These different preferences in the design of their future energy systems and the role coal plays are mainly caused by the conflicts the values economic development and security of supply have with the value environmental sustainability. The coal system burdens the ecosystems, by scaling down the use of coal or by other environmental regulations this effect can be mitigated. Such an action will be a dominant design choice when a country prefers the value environmental sustainability. In countries with a steep growth in the economy, for example in China, it is almost impossible to not harm the values economic development and security of supply by environmental regulations based on the value environmental sustainability. One of the main reasons that the literature is researching clean coal technologies is to discover the possibilities to design a future energy system that addresses all the dominant values. This paper gives insight in the principles behind the dominant values in the literature about coal based electricity production, overall coal consumption and coal production. The literature review contributes to the identification of the dominant values and especially of the conflicts within and between them. This identification gives insights in the difficulties that value conflicts can have for the transformation from a fossil fuel (coal) based energy system to a more sustainable one. With the many conflicts within and between these values this it is a very complicated challenge to address them all or to come to a unified conclusion about the importance of one value over another. Further insights are needed in the trade-off between the dominant values in the design of our future energy system. A well-balanced system is a system that finds a well-grounded balance between the dominant values of the coal sector.
Broader research is needed to discover more dominant values and more relevant conflicts for the design of our future energy system. The limited amount dominant values that are analysed is the main limitation of this paper. Other limitations are the lack of diversity in the literature selected, the number of papers reviewed and the short timespan within the literature review is conducted.
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