Cassidy Maher
PAC100
Marina McCartney
20 April 2018
Early Childhood Programmes: Indigenous Language Loss
The passing down of knowledge through generations is a cornerstone of the preservation of culture and language. Oral histories and cultural expression through traditional practices are prominent parts of Pacific culture. These expressions are made possible through the use of indigenous languages. With the widespread influence of colonisers, specifically in school settings, the native languages of Pacific islands have often been repressed and English has taken over. In the case of the Cook Islands, the influence of English in the school system has contributed to a major loss of native language speakers that comes along with a threat of indigenous knowledge loss as well. Conversely, standard Fijian is taught in Fijian schools and, as a result, nearly all indigenous Fijians are fluent. Notes can be taken from the Fijian education system as well as Pacific academics and education theorists in regards to the best way to address language loss. It is crucial to implement early childhood educational programmes that include pedagogies, beliefs, and perceptions of different Pacific peoples and are geared towards preservation of indigenous language and indigenous knowledge.
Standard Fijian was first recorded by missionaries, who then proceeded to use and teach it in the first Fijian schools where it continues to be taught today (White, 2002, p. 20). The majority of indigenous Fijians are fluent in standard Fijian while most Fijian Indians speak Hindustani. Both languages are used in primary school until Year 3 when English language dominates and indigenous languages are designated as subject courses (White, 2002). Standard Fijian is the first language of most indigenous Fijians and it dominates the discourse in home settings as well as informal school interactions between students. Fijian students use English almost exclusively in formal classroom activities or interactions with teachers. Students who do not know how to speak Fijian are oftentimes looked down upon and seen as lesser than their peers. Additionally, students who are perceived as speaking too much English are often called “kaivalagi” and “viavia” which roughly translate to “like a European” and “show-off” respectively (White, 2002, p. 26). Fijian language is not only important in casual interactions with family and friends but is also important in the years following the coups because Fijian leaders and their people are identified through their “values, behaviours, beliefs and practices associated with Fijian culture” (White, 2002, p. 24). Language is one of the largest building blocks of culture, allowing people to communicate their values, beliefs, and traditions with one another from generation to generation.
Converse to Fiji, indigenous language knowledge and use in the Cook Islands is decreasing and in danger of being lost. English is the official language of the Cook Islands and only about 5% of Maori children speak any form of Cook Islands Maori as it has “ceased to be the language of socialization of children” (Taumoefolau, 2011; Glasgow, 2010). Cook Islands Maori is viewed by many as being “the road to nowhere” in terms of succeeding in educational and career settings (Glasgow, 2010, p. 124). These perceptions and attitudes contribute to the language loss, which in turn results in loss of pieces of culture that can only be presented fully in the native language. The ability to speak the indigenous language is important in a quest to be “culturally literate” and a “contributing member to your cultural group” (Glasgow, 2010, p. 125). In order to combat this language loss, there have been initiatives proposed to encourage a community-based learning style where indigenous knowledge and culture are at the forefront of education. This is exemplified by the Te Api’i Tamariki Potiki programme that takes a more holistic and natural approach to education in contrast to typical Westernized schools (Glasgow, 2010, p. 126). early childhood programmes must emphasize a Pacific way of learning by way of including families, community, and cultural experts when determining curriculum, focusing on identity, and moving away from Western pedagogical techniques (Glasgow, 2010, p. 129). Additionally, a focus on traditional practices such as “are vananga” or “are korero” houses of learning where traditional knowledges and constant use of the Maori language is passed from elders to specific younger people is suggested as a way to recognize traditional practices (Glasgow, 2010, p. 131). If programmes that focus on indigenous language and culture are introduced early on in life, there is promise for children to become fluent speakers and for Cook Islands Maori to make a comeback.
The role of indigenous language in Pacific cultures is significant. Traditional practices, perceptions, histories, and values are rooted in sharing a common language. With the loss of native language comes loss of meaning as well as authentic perceptions of stories and traditions (Decolonising). On an individual level, people use language as a way of incorporating themselves into their larger cultural group within their communities and nations and “without it there is neither identity nor nationality” (Taufeulungaki, 2004, p. 6). Pacific peoples are able to feel a stronger connection to their countries, villages and families through the language that has been spoken throughout the history of their people. As Henry Puna, the prime minister of the Cook Islands, said in a speech in 2012, “language identifies who we are” (Verspeek, 2012). This is exemplified by a perception in the Cook Islands that people who cannot speak Maori are not truly Cook Islanders. Language is “the universal instrument for transmission, promotion and transformation of culture” (Taufeulungaki, 2004, p. 12). Pacific people view the ability to speak the mother tongue as a crucial part of engaging in their identities and culture and this belief can be a driver of education reform in Pacific islands. A large part of using indigenous language in schools is not only that it improves ability to learn, but also that it preserves cultural knowledge and perspectives (Taufeulungaki, 2004). When considering how to combat language loss through educational programmes, cultural traditions and indigenous knowledge must be considered when considering methods with potential to be effective.
The most effective method of addressing deficits in indigenous language and knowledge development is to create programmes in schools that move away from Western philosophies and begin to embrace Pacific culture and ways of life. It is crucial that students become fluent in the vernacular language before they attempt to learn English in school. Not only does waiting to learn improve cognitive development overall, but it also improves a person’s ability to learn a second language (White, 2002; Glasgow, 2010; Taufeulungaki, 2004). For students to learn in their vernacular language, all teachers must be fluent in the language. Additionally, they should also be knowledgeable of local customs and beliefs that may impact student learning (Glasgow, 2010; Taufeulungaki, 2004). Not only is it necessary to receive proper mentorship from teachers, but including family and community members is instrumental in helping students succeed and accurately learn their indigenous knowledges (Taufeulungaki, 2004, p. 10). Encompassed within indigenous knowledge are methodologies for teaching and learning. For effective language education, Pacific nations should move towards a more holistic approach that emphasizes interactive learning and creativity as opposed to memorizing and individuality that runs rampant in Western pedagogy (Taufeulungaki, 2004, p. 13). The Cook Islands are making some of these changes with the advent of the Cook Islands Early Childhood Curriculum that emphasizes Maori values and pedagogy (Glasgow, 2010). Another great example of preserving indigenous language is the case of New Zealand Maori language nests that embrace language and culture of Maori from birth. It has been proven successful and has been effective in resisting language loss (Glasgow, 2010). In an overarching view of Pacific education, language and indigenous knowledge must be taught “using the perspectives of Pacific peoples themselves, who are steeped in their Pacific languages and cultures” (Taumoefolau, 2011). The inclusion of local community in the educational process would allow far more room for an emphasis on culture and native language than is currently present in Westernized Pacific schools.
Language loss is one of the largest issues facing Pacific peoples today. The Cook Islands are not the only nation experiencing declines in number of people fluent in the vernacular language. There are initiatives starting to roll out that are meant to address language loss. It is evident that simply speaking the native language for the first few years of primary school, as is the case with Fiji, is extremely helpful to preservation of indigenous speakers. Along with preserving native language in school settings, it is important that Pacific nations adopt programmes that emphasize their cultural beliefs and pedagogies instead of those of their Western colonisers. The best way to do this is through acknowledging the strong bridge between local communities and culture. Pacific communities are steeped in culture and it is important to acknowledge that when teaching young students. The role of holistic Pacific pedagogies and cultural recognition is the key to getting the ball rolling towards language and indigenous knowledge preservation.
References
Glasgow, A. (2010). Measures to Preserve Indigenous Language and Culture in te Reo Kuki Airani (Cook Islands Māori Language). AlterNative: An International Journal of Indigenous Peoples, 6(2), 122-133. doi:10.1177/117718011000600204
Numa, P (2003). Ai’teanga: Symbols of national identity. In R.G. Crocombe & M. Crocombe (Eds.), Akono’anga Maori =; Cook Islands culture (pp. 51-58). Suva, Fiji : Institute of Pacific Studies ; in association with the Cook Islands Extension Centre, University of the South Pacific 2003.
Taufeulungaki, ‘Ana (2004, January). Language and Culture in the Pacific Region: Issues, Practices, and Alternatives. Paper presented at the Education Ministers Meeting, Apia, Samoa.
Taumoefolau, Melenaite (2011). Decolonising Pacific Studies: Privileging Pacific Languages and Indigenous Knowledges. In N. Vaka’uta (Ed.), Talanoa rhythms; voices from Oceania (pp. 62-71). Auckland, NZ: Masilamea Press.
Verspeek, Gerardus (2012, August 11). Cook Islands Prime Minister Speech. [Video file]. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oYnjyyaS2K0
White, C. M. (2002). Language, Authenticity and Identity: Indigenous Fijian Students and Language Use in Schools. Language, Culture and Curriculum, 15(1), 16-29. doi:10.1080/07908310208666630