To what extent does an American identity exist and how is it constructed through works of American literature?
The concept of identity itself is a complex one, and one that it is key to understand in order to examine American identity. Identity is defined as ‘the characteristics determining who or what a person or thing is.’ (Oxford’s online dictionary n.d). If going by this definition, we must therefore examine what the characteristics of being American are, and how they therefore determine why someone is American. To determine how this identity is then constructed in literature, one must first find the identity. From that, fiction can be analysed in its presentation of identity and whether or not the identity shown is cohesive and actually existent.
If one assumes that a national identity can be built by one particular ethos, in the United States it would be the concept of the ‘American Dream’. The American Dream was a term first coined by James Truslow Adams as thus: ‘that dream of a land in which life should be better and richer and fuller for everyone, with opportunity for each according to ability or achievement’ (1931). Similarly, the American dream has been described as a ‘charm for anticipated success’ (Tocqueville 1835). Therefore, we can determine how American identity is presented certainly through its relation to the American Dream and wealth. In terms of the portrayal of the American Dream in literature, it has been vastly alluded to and written about by authors such as John Steinbeck. However, in order to discuss the construction of identity in literature in-depth, three books stand out as key portrayals in regards to wealth and the idea of meritocracy: The Great Gatsby by F. Scott Fitzgerald, American Pastoral by Phillip Roth and The Catcher in the Rye by J.D. Salinger.
In a similar fashion to the American Dream, the American identity is consistently associated with education and the concept of ‘Ivy League’ universities. 19,977,270 students were enrolled in degree-granting institutions in the fall semester of 2015 (National Center for Education Statistics 2015). This suggests that education and identity are linked, and that therefore one must study how the American education is presented through American literature. The Secret History by Donna Tartt explores issues in relation to wealth and class in the American education system and is thus perfect to explore how the American identity is constructed in this way especially alongside Salinger’s work, which features a protagonist in an exclusive boarding school.
Thirdly, when examining to what extent an American identity exists, one must acknowledge the wide racial, religious and ethnic diversity of the United States. In 2016, 13.5 per cent of the United States were immigrants (approximately 43.7 million people) (Zong, Batalova and Hallock 2018). As of 2013, there was an estimated 5.3 million Jewish people living in America; approximately 2.2 per cent of American adults (Lipka 2013). This links to the presentation of identity in American Pastoral, featuring a Jewish protagonist. Similarly, when analysing the identity of the United States one must acknowledge the country’s heritage. The United States was built on the homes of the Native American tribes that existed prior to Columbus’ settlement, and this therefore forms a vastly different identity to that of a white American citizen. In 2010, 1.7 per cent of the United States’ population identified as American Indian or Alaska Native (Norris, Vines, Hoeffel 2012). While this is a small minority, it is necessary to acknowledge it in order to understand the breadth of the American identity in its existence. Therefore, in terms of the presentation of this element of history in regards to identity and thus its presentation in literature, one must pick a title that represents such history. The Son by Philipp Meyer explores a family’s history of Texas with links to the Comanche Nation and the oil industry. This also draws on the idea of wealth and the American Dream.
This also draws on how one’s sense of identity may be different in relation to where they live. The presentation of identity in the Southern states – like in The Son – may be rapidly different to Fitzgerald’s portrayal of America through the perspective of New York residences. Similarly, the time in which the literature was written may well change the version of identity visible to the reader. In order to establish whether this is the case, a comparison of The Great Gatsby (published in 1925) and The Son (published in 2013) will have to be undertaken to show not only whether identity has changed, but if it has changed significantly. Within this project, I expect to find that the identity has not changed but very much exists, with some development in terms of wealth.
The issue of wealth, class and the American dream is one of complexity, especially in relation to identity. In relation to the Oxford dictionary definition visible above, it can be categorised as part of ‘the characteristics determining who or what a person is’. The wealth divide in America is large: wealth and income inequality are near the highest point in the last 100 years (Yellen 2014). The disproportionality in wealth is so great that in 2013, the wealthiest five per cent held 63 per cent of all total wealth, while the lower half of households held just one per cent of wealth (Yellen 2014). In practice, this meant that the average net worth of these 62 million households was eleven thousand dollars in 2013 (Yellen 2014). This therefore creates mass contradictions in identity, but also shows how wealth is something that people are caused to idolise. In order to have an identity that is successful, you must combat severe divides. This links to the American belief in the American Dream. As mentioned previously, James Truslow Adams spoke about the Dream as a desire for a ‘better, richer and happier’ (1931) livelihood, thus entrenching it with the idea of wealth. Therefore it can be assumed that the idea of an American identity is ultimately deeply associated with the idea of wealth, and the accumulation of wealth.
When it comes to wealth’s presentation in literature and the association of wealth with identity, The Great Gatsby displays wealth and its close connections with identity throughout the novel. F. Scott Fitzgerald himself was of a wealthy background; his mother’s inheritance was their source of income when he was twelve and he attended a prestigious Catholic school in New York (biography.com 2017). Zelda Fitzgerald was born into a wealthy and prestigious Alabama family (Milford 1970) and agreed to marry him only once his book was published (Bruccoli 2002). Fitzgerald’s own life was so engrained with the concepts of Adams’ ‘better and fuller and richer’ (1931) life that it is natural it would appear in his novel also. His own life was built around accumulating further wealth, emphasising the point that American identity and wealth are one and the same.
To examine whether or not The Great Gatsby constructs an American identity in association with wealth, one must analyse how it portrays such wealth in the novel. The epigraph of the novel is attributed to a ‘Thomas Parke D’Invelliers’ – a fictional minor character in his prior novel, This Side of Paradise. By combining a quotation about the appeal of wealth to Americans and a minor fictional character, Fitzgerald forms a critique of the American identity’s involvement with wealth, implying a false nature within the emphasis on gaining wealth. Similarly, by stating ‘wear the gold hat, if that will move her’ (2000:6), Fitzgerald implies that wealth is a source of attraction to women. This therefore once again implies that to become more attractive in American society, you must be wealthy. This therefore suggests that wealth is a key part of American identity, and was as much so in the 1920s as it is now. The association of wealth and American identity is manifested in the form of Daisy’s character. Gatsby describes her voice by stating that it is ‘full of money’ (Fitzgerald 2000: 115). By associating the person Gatsby loves most in the world with wealth, Fitzgerald once again suggests wealth and attraction are one and the same, and that wealth is a part of an identity that can be attractive. Therefore, American literature constructs an American identity through intertwining wealth and character, presenting them as one.
Research conducted in America suggests that in terms of online dating, wealthier men are more successful than poorer men (Hitsch, Hortaçsu and Ariely 2005). Outcomes for men with incomes of over $50,000 improved: compared to incomes below $50,000, the increase in initial responses by at least 32 per cent, with responses increasing by as much as 156 per cent for incomes over $250,000 (Hitsch, Hortaçsu and Ariely 2005). This therefore suggests that in American society, your ability to attract and function well in society is partially based on your wealth. This therefore supports the idea that the American identity is founded on the accumulation of wealth – it stems attraction to other Americans and creates something to strive for. If identity is the aforementioned definition (‘the characteristics determining who or what a person or thing is’ (Oxford’s online dictionary, n.d.)) then wealth determines all aspects of American life. Fitzgerald conveys this completely within his work, showing how wealth is attractive and fundamental to operating successfully within American society. However, Fitzgerald’s commentary is far from complimentary. He describes 1920s American society as ‘a new world, material without being real’ (2000:153), emphasising the hollowness of the world the characters inhabit. Therefore, while wealth is seen as attached to American identity, it is not necessarily a positive element.
In an article written for Quartz magazine, Zachary M. Seward discusses ‘the novel’s jaundiced view of the American dream’ (2013), linking Fitzgerald’s portrayal of A the way that the American dream is woven into society and how engrained it is in the moral beliefs. The wave of material goods and Gatsby themed parties that emerged (Seward 2013) including that of advertising for Brooks Brothers’ shirts, emphasised a detachment and removal from the novel in terms of understanding. The lack of criticism by the public on Gatsby’s consumerism emphasised how the American desire for wealth is so tied to their identity, that it cannot be criticised. Seward states that he didn’t think Fitzgerald ‘could have predicted that Jay Gatsby would become an icon of celebration, but it probably wouldn’t surprise him. Gatsby is us, after all, and we are inescapably American.’ The critical interpretation that Gatsby represents the American people backs up the concept that Jay Gatsby is reflective of the American identity, and therefore his incessant want to be wealthy, to be successful, to be attractive, to be educated is what is ‘American’ and what is the identity of his nation. Therefore, an American identity exists to a significant extent: it is alive and kicking, and the same critical analysis that Fitzgerald made in his work in regards to the identity’s association with materialism is still applicable.
Similarly, the writing of J.D. Salinger within The Catcher In The Rye draws heavily on the world of the American upper classes, social elitism and the American Dream. The novel is considered one of the best of all time for its ‘permanent reminder of the sweetness of childhood’ (Lacayo 2010). The novel features the main character of Holden Caulfield leaving his Pennsylvania school and travelling back to his home of New York City. Like Salinger, Caulfield comes from a wealthy family – Salinger once stated that the book contained autobiographical elements from his own childhood (Crawford 2006). The involvement of wealth in youth is discussed, linking to the role of wealth in identity. Salinger writes the character of Caulfield as maintaining an immature relationship with his own money, stating ‘I’d spent a king’s ransom in about two lousy weeks… What I don’t spend, I lose… My father’s quite wealthy though… He’s a corporation lawyer. Those boys really haul it in’ (2010: 116).
Salinger therefore engrains wealth into Caulfield’s identity – it is a characteristic which determines who he is and what makes him that person. Similarly, Salinger’s writing of Caulfield’s wealth is just as applicable to modern audiences – modern lawyers in the United States often experience starting salaries of one hundred and sixty thousand dollars (. While Caulfield’s relationship with money is incredibly casual, indicating his immaturity as a young man, Salinger also reveals that wealth in the United States creates a form of detachment from society. Similar to Gatsby’s dissatisfaction with his life despite his material wealth, Caulfield is detached from his school and expectations because he dislikes the comfort with which he fits into society; he desires change and to get away from the social pressures of his family. In a method similar to Fitzgerald’s critical perspectives of wealth, Salinger draws on the way in which wealth is often a form of division and excess. Wealth to Holden Caulfield is something that can be wasted and thrown away – much like his attempts at schoolwork or relationships. Once again, therefore, we see how American literature constructs a definitely existent American identity with wealth.
If identity is ‘‘the characteristics determining who or what a person or thing is’ (Oxford’s online dictionary, n.d) then education is closely linked to identity. In 2016, 2.2 million students – 70 per cent of all students who had completed high school that year – were enrolled to begin college in the September of 2016 (an increase from the 63 per cent that enrolled in 2000, and one per cent from the year prior) (National Center for Education Statistics 2018). Once again, the involvement of wealth was visible in this development of identity: the enrolment of children from high-income families was 83 per cent, while only 67 per cent of children from families with low income enrolled. Of these colleges, there is particular emphasis on the prestigious Ivy League universities, a term first coined by Alan Gould on the 8th February 1935 (Bernstein 2001). Of the applicants for the class of 2021, Harvard University accepted 2037 students out of the 39041 applications received – a 5.2 per cent acceptance rate (Jackson 2017). The competitive level makes these universities exceptionally desirable, and are often named as ‘dream colleges’ (Princeton Review 2017) . Similarly, the USA contains many liberal arts colleges known for their focus placed on subjects other than subjects considered technical or professional such as humanities and arts (dictionary.com n.d.). These colleges are often included in the category of ‘Little Ivies’, with the name deriving from the similar standards of the Ivy League. These colleges, combined with the Ivy League, are therefore sources of aspiration for young Americans, and ultimately college becomes part of their identity.
When looking for a text that encompassed the ideas of American identity being closely linked with education, one could look no further than The Secret History. Set in the fictional prestigious New England ‘Hampden College’, Tartt’s novel explores the lives of a group of classics students who transgress moral boundaries. Within the novel, she explores how classism and education are often interlinked. Tartt places great emphasis on the characters’ childhoods – the opening pages describe ‘a house in Virginia: a childhood I like to think about, with horses and rivers and sweet gum trees’ (1993:6) as well as ‘an American childhood… a big noisy house in the suburbs… summers on Cape Cod’ (1993:7). This association by the narrator Richard Papen with a dream lifestyle goes to show once more the idea that American identity is closely associated with the aspirational, with wealth and money. This is emphasised by the typically American display of wealth through location: Massachusetts (the location of Cape Cod) and Virginia are the fourth and eighth richest states in America while Vermont (where Hampden College – a fictional location – is located) is the twentieth wealthiest state (Stebbins, Sauter and Comen, 2017). Donna Tartt’s construction of identity in her work therefore begins in the very first pages, and is very clearly visible: Papen defines himself by his friends, and creates parallels between his imperfect, ‘un-American’ life. He views his American identity as inferior because he does not have the wealth of his friends, once again showing how wealth is engrained into all aspects of American identity in literature and showing how wealth and education are interlinked. This is seen also in statistics: the richest state in America is Maryland – the average income of a household is $78,945 – which is also the third most educated state: 39.3 per cent of Maryland adults have a bachelor’s degree (Stebbins, Sauter and Comen, 2017).