Original fairy tales such as Perrault’s ‘Little Red Riding Hood’ or De Beaumont’s ‘Beauty and The Beast’ depict women as both socially and physically inferior – they reflect a hegemonic patriarchal social structure that restricted female voice and independence in order to maintain the status quo. In ‘The Bloody Chamber’ Angela Carter effectively draws out the theme of feminism by contrasting traditional elements of the fairy-tale genre and Gothic fiction – which usually depict female characters as weak and helpless – with strong female protagonists. This provides Carter the ability to create sexually liberated female characters that are set against more traditional backdrops. In doing so, she reinvents the outdated conventions of fairy tales and offers insight on the archetypes and stereotypes of women in these well-known and celebrated stories. ‘The World’s Wife’ is a collection of poems written by Carol Ann Duffy that look at characters, stories, histories and myths focussing on men. In her renowned feminist fashion, Duffy presents them anew for the public in a manner that contrasts to traditional tales’ marginalisation of women by a dominant masculine narrative. Due to their respective contexts (Carter writing in the 70s and Duffy in the 90s) their presentation of ideas are slightly different – as societal expectations developed between the two texts publication dates. As a whole, both works can be treated as a collection of poems and stories that speak to a bigger narrative dealing with issues of feminism and metamorphosis instead of a set of individual tales. Although each work deals with a different set of characters, the 'oppressed female seeking liberation' is a common theme and concept that is explored throughout both collections.
Modern authors have re-imagined traditional narratives to uncover the oppressive systems of patriarchy embedded within traditional literature, discussing the issue of social stereotyping of male power and dominance in contrast to female subservience. Original fairy tales restrict the opportunities of female protagonists, allowing their fate to be controlled by male characters and society’s restrictive expectations of women. Authors such as Perrault of ‘Little Red Riding Hood’ were quick to provide advice to their suggestible female readers in moral that girls should not try to drift from the path that society has laid out for them. Thus they became ‘parables of instruction’ (Carter) to indoctrinate the next generation in the values of a patriarchal society. Fairy tales of this time consistently remind us that those of the female sex will not prosper if they choose to ignore and defy the social constructs. Pre 1900s, the roles of women were entirely predetermined. A clear female dichotomy was established portraying them as either ‘the virgin’ or ‘the whore’. Stereotypical perceptions of women reduced them to biological functions and stated that they should acquire the role of wife and mother – objectified to such an extent where they were essentially their male counterpart’s possession. Both authors scorn the importance placed on domesticity and conformity, stressing the vital nature of being able to choose and uncover the consequences of societal ignorance. Carter highlights to her literary audience a passive generation of women who face the inability to vocalise their thoughts and opinions in the context of oppressive patriarchy. Within her work ‘The Company of Wolves’ “The last thing the old lady saw in all this world was a young man, eyes like cinders, naked as a stone, approaching her bed ”. This criticises previous attitudes towards women of being defined by passivity – leaving the grandmother entirely unable to act upon the intruder’s presence and defend herself. This signifies her generation’s powerlessness in moving away from objectification promoted throughout the duration of the hegemonic patriarchal system typified in Perrault’s work. The absence of a male counterpart could also signify how Carter believes all of the male species are sexual predators and desire dominance over the females in their lives. The idea of age in this situation can also be analysed. The ‘young man’ in contrast to the ‘old grandmother’ could represent the wealth of opportunity males have access to in society, whilst women are left in the social backwaters and are forced to grow old before their time into a life of domesticity, submissiveness and objectivity. A psychoanalytic approach could suggest this to be symbolic of women’s sex drive in relation to intense level of repression and male sexual dominance – as they are unable to exert any form of open interest in fulfilling sexual urges to conform to society’s gender behaviours. Essentially, Carter re-imagined traditional narratives in order to encourage further structural change in society; patriarchy was dominant in society with men viewed entirely superior to women. It was expected for ingrained differences between male and female behaviour to be prevalent with women victims of male oppression. As time passed and authors such as Carter promoted society to become more progressive in this way, gender began to be viewed as fluid and more of a social construct – with gender dynamics being deemed more important than gender differences. This left Duffy able to bring her character to a state of realisation and rejection in regards to the topic of female oppression due to the changes in societal context and feminist attitudes over the 20 years between the two texts publications. In her poem ‘Little Red Cap’ she takes more of an active stance in opposing such societal archaic assumptions in terms of reform and resistance. It initially begins with an act of submissiveness on Little Red Cap’s part in regards to the wolf when she states that a bird “flew, straight, from my hands to his open mouth ”. Here, the wolf outwardly denies her of the freedom which the bird so obviously symbolises. However, her final actions within the poem act as a refutation of male systems of hierarchy and female compliance. Rather than obeying gender norms, she “stitched him up…Out of the forest I come with my flowers singing, all alone ”. This evident sense of pride in her tone alongside her joyous “singing” whilst “alone” signifies female strength and independence. Whilst in The Company of Wolves the grandmother is viciously murdered by the wolf and Red Riding Hood only flourishes once a relationship is established between her and the beastly male figure, Little Red Cap experiences complete freedom from the grasps of patriarchal influence and is able to celebrate her solitude and self-determination. Instead of allowing her existence to be defined by a man who is ready to eradicate all elements of freedom and personality from her life, she leaves a relationship in complete control – knowing her own mind able to make decisions for herself in jubilance on her new journey. Carter’s depiction of the grandmother’s last moments is hugely reflective of Mulvey’s Gaze Theory whilst Duffy eliminates the possibility of such a notion through her removal of male characters. She is “the bearer of meaning, not maker of meaning .” in contrast to Little Red Cap who is a ‘maker of meaning’, constructing her own identity. A modern feminist would deem this a social shift in expectations accessible to women. The term ‘Feminism’ was first used in 1865 and picked up momentum in 1960 with female suffrage and the war – with the suffragette movement becoming particularly prevalent in the late 19th century. This alteration in approach towards womankind led to immense political adjustment, with the introduction of acts such as The Equal Pay Act of 1970, Sex Discrimination Act 1975 and Roe vs. Wade of 1973. With help from female authors like Carter and Duffy, literary advancements were also made; their transformation of fairy tales challenged the latent content seen within original works. At the time traditional texts were written, gender was viewed in completely binary terms, with gender difference a biological fact. Carter, writing in the 1970s focussed on complacency and structural specific change. Her ideas were largely based upon assuming the role of male power and highlighting the restricted opportunities for women in society. Thus she seeks to break the ‘enchantment ’ of the traditional tales which implicitly endorse female oppression in order to galvanise change. In contrast, Duffy writing in the 1990s had called for more attitudinal change. With a better idea of gender fluidity, she found possessing the freedom to choose was more important. Duffy is more interested in exploring how women can achieve self-realisation in a society where they have achieved increased freedom but still suffer from the restrictive expectations of engrained gender ideologies. Both however make an active effort to confront the rigidity of social and gender construct and attempt to break barriers with the convictions embedded within their works. This results in their readers becoming more universally aware of such issues and allows them reflect and act upon how confined and submissive women can be if faced by patriarchal male dominance and power.
As already briefly mentioned, the idea of female sexuality and its societal repression is also a key theme within both Duffy and Carter’s work. Contextually speaking, ideas about female sexuality have significantly changed from the 17th and 18th century societies of the original tales to the point at which Carter and Duffy reimagine them. Traditional narratives tended to hold extreme views towards women and their expression of sexual agency. Throughout the medieval time period, the laws of the Catholic Church and the secular laws of society generally stated that it was preferable for someone to maintain virginity throughout the entirety of a woman’s life. If she were to have a sexual life however, then it would only be deemed socially legitimate for procreation through marriage. However, sex and sexuality were in themselves seen as sins, regardless of the circumstances under which they occurred. The act of adultery was considered to be the worst of all sexual sins, but it was well acknowledged that only women would be punished for such an action – “A common punishment for adulterous women – whipping, head shaving, and parading the adulteress through the streets ”. In the 20th century there was a significant revolution in attitudes towards female sexual liberation. Books such as Betty Friedan’s ‘The Feminine Mystique’ of 1963 were published and spurred on a change in attitude towards women as a whole. Carter implements this theme of sexual desire and exploration amongst women within her work. In ‘The Tiger’s Bride’ the female protagonist is immediately commodified as an object of exchange; “My father lost me to the beast in a game of cards ”. Through doing this, Carter instantly frames her in a society where women are seen as possessions that can be traded and gambled by men. After her arrival at the castle, she meets her ‘automaton double’ – a “clockwork twin ” who serves as a reflection of her own sexual objectification. Her servitude is magnified when compared to an object of such lifelessness designed exclusively to serve others and fulfil their needs. “That clockwork girl…had I not been allotted only the same kind if imitative life amongst men that the doll maker had given her? ” – Here, Carter shows the girl’s realisation that she possesses no greater agency than the inanimate object before her. When her new ‘master’ makes his demand of her, it is expected that his sexual dominance of her to be the culmination of the narrative. Instead, he simply requests to “see the pretty young lady unclothed and nude without her dress ”. Instead of following traditional societal norms and fulfilling his desire, the heroine responds with pure disgust to the thought of him as the observer and her as the observed – the object. She is offended to such an extent that she reveals she would find being treated as a ‘common whore’ preferable (a more traditional mode of sexual objectification). Mulvey’s gaze theory is hugely relevant here; as in the narrative, the observer holds all the power – as they are the interpreters and ‘creators of meaning’. Thus making the observed inherently powerless; this links to Carter’s statement in the Sadeian woman that ‘to be the object of desire is to be defined in the passive case’. Through the girl’s blatant refusal to fill this role of the observed sexually, she denies the Tiger of the power he would usually be granted and believes he deserves, orchestrating a shift in power balance. This subversion of traditional female submissiveness enables the female protagonist to no longer be in the same position as the clockwork maid – reflected in the fact that her “face was no longer the spit of my own ”. Carter culminates the story with a complete reversal of the power dynamic between the two characters presented with a shift in gaze; it is in fact the Tiger that displays himself to her whilst the assumes the role of observer. However, rather than an act of subjugation this becomes an act of union. Her objectified virginal body – symbol of the male desire and ideal – instead reveals something more primal. She too becomes a creature that exists outside the confines of the rules of a patriarchal society – rejecting the traditional narrative’s representation of women’s need to act in a ‘lady-like’ and ‘proper’ manner Carter was critical of conventional femininity and aimed to move away from the cultural and literary clichés which kept the power imbalance a part of society. Whilst Again, Female sexual identity also plays a large role in Duffy’s poem ‘Mrs Beast’. At the time Duffy wrote ‘The World’s Wife’, sexual freedom and teenage rebellion became engrained within society. This gave women a sense of sexual liberation, as they were finally able to control their destiny and began being able to develop more of a sexual identity, able to enjoy the benefits of sexual relationships rather than simply starting a family and fulfilling a predetermined domesticated role. The growth of mass media in the 80s and 90s also led to a greater capacity for self-fashioning and fluidity of identity. Increased sexualisation of women throughout this period meant that it became more socially acceptable for women to act in a more promiscuous fashion. It has been argued that ‘Mrs Beast’ displays not only her feminist outlook, but also attacks the ‘self-serving attitudes of self-proclaimed feminists that ultimately serve to maintain the status quo ’ The main character acts as a form of social criticism to ensure readers are more aware of societal mistreatment and inequality The ‘status quo’ of gender power imbalance and competition for power between the sexes is maintained albeit with the sexes of the participants reversed, the same gender power narratives are enacted, problematizing the idea of female sexual empowerment at the expense of men, instead advocating a more 3rd wave feminist focus on equality and deconstruction of any form of gender power narrative. Mrs Beast is fully conscious of gender inequalities but is incapable of seeing relationships as anything other than a struggle for dominance, and therefore mistreats her husband the same way she argues other women are mistreated by men. This acts as a reminder that if no radical change about the very nature of the relationship between ideas of gender and power is instigated, society will continue to reinforce the idea of gender exploitation. From the outset, it is clear that Mrs Beast is a woman who knows her own mind and possesses a great deal of authority both emotionally within the relationship and sexually. The linguistic structure used by Duffy subverts traditional gender roles and illustrates a dominant female and a subservient male. The 1st stanza opens in a self-assured and assertive tone as Mrs Beast claims to be putting her audience straight about women and the way she and others like her should be perceived. Duffy subverts the fairytale myth of the heroic male figure as Mrs Beast asserts that she has her “own black horse at the gates ” to carry her off if the Beast transgresses in any way. To an extent, this makes men’s roles in fairytales seem like an unnecessary feature as their job is to save the damsel in distress; and in this case, females are able to save themselves. Duffy rapidly moves onto a more sexualised narrative however: “The pig in my bed was invited. And if his snout and trotters fouled my damask sheets, why, then, he’d wash them ”. The animalistic imagery of “pig” to represent the Beast degrades him, making him more animal than human. The italicising of the lexis “invited” adds explicit emphasis, portraying how the sexual relationship operates only on her terms, which would be deemed unusual in conventional relationships. Duffy uses this sexual narrative to reinforce the idea of social criticism when she writes “He had the grunts, the groans, the yelps, the breath of a goat. I had the language, girls… ” Here, Duffy reduces the power of the Beast to a purely animalistic, sexual function, thereby objectifying him in the vein of traditional male objectification.. His inability to communicate heightens his beastly nature but also his vulnerability. The possession of “language” puts Mrs Beast in control – signifying how, in Carter’s own words, ‘language is power’ . This could be applied to Duffy’s intention for attitudinal change in that, if language brings power, the ability to share views with one another in regards to the treatment of women will spur on a societal resolution. Towards the end of the poem, Duffy offers a different view of women which supports this further plea for change – a recognition of those who have been defeated by men and suffered the consequences: “but behind each player stood a line of ghosts unable to win ”. These “ghosts” of the past act as reminders to society of what happens to submissive women who allow themselves to be completely controlled and objectified. Both Carter and Duffy use the shift away from traditional virginal female innocence to sexual awareness as a way for their speakers to escape objectification, by making them active participants in control of their own destiny rather than passive objects. However, unlike ‘The Tiger’s Bride’, where Carter uses her heroine’s own sexual awareness to bring the two characters together as equals, Duffy uses ‘Mrs Beast’ as a sexually dominant individual who overpowers the Beast – to highlight the idea of power imbalance between genders. In the 1970s where female sexual liberation was just beginning to develop momentum, Carter idealistically saw sexual power as synonymous with equality as women had previously been denied sexual agency. Writing in the 1990s where female sexual freedom was significantly more acceptable in mainstream society, Duffy seeks to deconstruct the power imbalances implicit in gendered sexual relationships, moving this away from the idea of the behaviour of ‘men’ and ‘women’ and instead focusing on narratives of ‘masculine’ and ‘feminine’ power, ultimately advocating a move away from all forms of inequality between the sexes in terms of attitudes towards gender and power. This plea for change works to represent how patriarchal attitudes and unequal opportunity (due to society’s inability to implement attitudinal change) are unsuitable for today’s society.
Essentially, both Carter and Duffy utilise their re-imagining of traditional narratives in fairy tales to spur on change regarding female societal treatment and assumption. Carter’s ambitions revolve around the idea of structural change for women to become a more engrained part of society, reflecting the prerogatives of 2nd wave feminism in a restrictive 1970s society. Duffy however, writing at a time where Carter’s wishes have largely been fulfilled, maintains a greater focus on attitudinal change towards the female population, embodying the 3rd wave individualistic agenda of the 1990s. Through such contrast to the traditional stories, their efforts are somewhat enhanced as readers become overly aware of gender inequality and the need for progression.