The objective of this analysis is to demonstrate an understanding of the differing modes of documentary. In the first part of this essay, I will be using several media texts including Night Mail (Harry Watt and Basic Wright, GPO Film Unit, 1936), 102 Minutes that Changed America (Nicole Rittenmeyer and Seth Skundrick, Siskel/Jacobs Productions, 2008), Fahrenheit 9/11 (Michael Moore, Lionsgate, 2004), Exit Through the Gift Shop (Banksy, Paranoid Pictures, 2010) and Touching the Void (Kevin Macdonald, FilmFour Productions, 2003) to back up my main points. In addition, I will be using Waltz with Bashir (Ari Folman, Bridgit Folman Film Gang, 2008), This Is Spinal Tap (Rob Reiner, Spinal Tap Prod, 1984) and Anvil: The Story of Anvil (Sacha Gervasi, 2009) to back up any further points that have been made in this essay.
There are eight main issues that I will discuss including the debate on whether documentary reflects reality, how the form of filmmaking captures reality and how the phrase ‘objectivity’ relates to the filmmaking form. I will also be discussing the role of the filmmaker, how documentaries are documented and explaining documentary film theory. In addition, I will be debating whether Documentary is fact or fiction while explaining that seeing evidence will likely lead the spectator to believe what is presented to them and defining documentary altogether.
There are multiple key theorists who have created multiple theories with clear arguments to help define and categorise documentary such as Bill Nichols. Nichols is an American film critic and theorist known for his book Representing Reality: Issues and Concepts in Documentary (1991) that applies the codes and conventions of film to the documentary form of filmmaking and categorises them into several different modes of representation. There are five main important modes known the Expository, Observational, Interactive/Participatory, Reflexive and Performative modes of representation. The modes of representation differ from genre because genre is concerned on the content of a documentary while the mode focuses on the features of a documentary.
Personally, I believe that Nichol’s theory is outdated as there are many differing types of documentaries available for the spectator with many different codes and conventions that fit in with the aspects of each mode of representation.
In the second part of this essay, I will be applying the codes and conventions of documentary to television programmes in order to distinguish how they would apply to Nichols’ beliefs about documentary.
John Grierson was the Films Officer at General Post Office (GPO) film unit and is often recognised for his role in Night Mail and credited for his pivotal role in the creation of documentary film due to there being a prestigious documentary award show being named after him known as the Grierson Awards. Grierson intended to educate and inform the masses with the utilisation of montage style Soviet cinema and the talented team of young filmmakers in his own filmmaking style during the 30s. He saw film as an analytical tool with as much need narrative and art as well as a way of recording events. Grierson is also often credited for inventing the term “documentary” for non-fiction films and he is also stated as saying that these types of films are “the creative treatment of actuality.” Through this quote, Grierson is stating that documentaries showcase film footage of the real world but also showcase creative elements in order to appeal to an audience. Grierson’s statement has been compared to Bazin’s claim that the camera lens is objective as while Bazin believes that the camera will deliver images that are a reflection of reality, Grierson argues against saying that it is almost impossible for documentary to reflect reality and cannot evade becoming a creative manipulation of reality.
The first mode of documentary originally theorised by Nichols is known as the Expository Mode and Nichols believes that the aim of this mode is to reflect reality. Expository Documentaries are often characterised by Nichols as being a comprehensive description and explanation of either an idea or theory, The purpose of the expository mode is to persuade the spectator to agree with the opinions and arguments displayed through the use of logic and common sense responses. Personally, I believe that expository documentaries can represent reality depending on the content and arguments shown as they can easily manipulate their audience. Night Mail is a British documentary that applies to this mode of representation and follows the route of a mail train from London to Glasgow and was funded by the GPO film unit; the film features a narration from John Grierson, the voice-over is used to explain what happens during the mail train’s route across the UK.
These types of documentaries have many key concepts and conventions including a voice-over that addresses the spectator with a direct mode of address and appears to be detached from the events portrayed on screen. The role of commentary takes the form of a voice-over and usually has an omnipotent authority outside of the diegesis basically meaning that expository documentaries include voice-overs with great power, influence and meaning outside of the diegesis. Expository documentaries also often include images that are used to clarify what the narrator’s points and editing used for continuity in the documentary to pair the images and arguments together. These documentaries often have a wide variety of footage, interviews, stills or archive footage/material to help support any points that have been brought forward by the filmmaker.
The spectator’s reception of the filmed footage in expository documentaries is often directed through the use of the voice-over which provides an omnipotent authority in the documentary. For example; there is a sequence in Night Mail (01:36 to 02:00) that involves Grierson explaining where the Postal Special is headed towards. The sequence fades in from the previous scene with the use of a high angle and several wide shots and mid shots to showcase the train moving along the tracks. The insertion of Grierson’s narration adds an omnipotent authority because he explains what is portrayed on screen in immense detail as if he is speaking directly to the audience.
However, Night Mail has received a lot of criticism due to the footage being rehearsed because Grierson and the rest of the GPO film unit staged the production of Night Mail. Instead of filming the scenes inside an actual train and filming the activities of the GPO during the train route, the filmmakers chose to film the documentary inside a studio and used actors as a way to re-enact the actual events. The GPO film unit had to make this sacrifice because they could not fit their filmmaking equipment onto the train due to size, this however supports the belief that Night Mail is not an accurate representation of the GPO train journey from London to Glasgow. For example; there is a scene in Night Mail that shows two workers making tea while their boss comes in to check what they are up to (16:20 to 16:40). The sequence begins with a close-up shot of the worker making a cup of tea, a wide shot of the worker passing the cup to a man who appears to be his higher-up and the sequence is then over. The intent of this sequence is to show that postal workers show respect towards their higher-ups and do not talk about their bosses behind their backs, this makes it hard to believe because we are viewing a recreation of real events and not real footage. In addition, this makes it difficult for the spectator to view Night Mail as an actuality because they don’t have knowledge of how the events actually took place and since there is no way to prove that what is shown on screen is fact, it leads to the belief that Night Mail is not an actuality.
It has also been accused of being propaganda because the spectator is only presented with a positive representation of industrial Britain and the source of funding for the film came from the government. For example; the concluding sequence of Night Mail ends with the reading of a poem by W.H. Auden, accompanied with music composed by Jamie Britten. The sequence begins with a wide shot that pans slowly across a field in the early morning, a crossfade is then used to link the motion in a similar empty field. The spectator is able to hear birds chirping and the whistling of the wind paired with quiet drum beats similar to the sound of a train, the drum beats then gain volume marking the start of the music. The camera then continues to move along the frame until the spectator can see a train approaching. With this taking place on screen, the spectator hears a voice reciting the poem, combining the contents of Auden’s work with the music of Britten. The narrator recites “This is the night mail, crossing the border. Bringing the check and the postal order…” (19:34) in an unchanged voice, the pan ends when the train is in the view of the camera. The music begins to become intense as workers shove coal into the train’s engine and begins to speed up with the train, along with the reading of the poem. The combination of the music, poetry and cinematography is used to compliment the dark shots in the early morning while workers are heaving coal into the fire. The intent of this sequence is to persuade the spectator to emphasise with the postal workers and respect how hard these people work, this could lead the spectator to believe that the film is propaganda as we are only seeing a positive representation instead of a balance representation. In addition, the fact that Night Mail received it’s funding through the government supports the claim that the film is propaganda because the government may have told Grierson to only include scenes that aid the representation of the post office workers. The main message of the film is that without the mail and GPO, the nation would be without communication, highlighting the fact that they work hard and that the people of Britain would be in darkness without it.
It is highly debatable whether the Expository Mode represents reality because on one hand, the mode aspires to provide knowledge and inform the spectator on events but on the other hand, you could argue that the filmmaker can choose which section of reality to represent, therefore it is hard to distinguish whether the mode represents reality. Night Mail may not be considered a representation of reality because of several factors including the fact that Grierson received his funding from the government, the representation of the GPO only being positive and that the documentary was actually staged. This makes it hard to believe that what is presented to the spectator is an actuality. However, since Grierson and the GPO film unit were forced to stage the events presented in the documentary in a studio due to their limitations with the equipment required, it could be argued that Night Mail is a reflection of reality but there is no way to prove that this actuality is an accurate representation of the GPO unit thus supporting the claim that the film is propaganda.
The second mode of documentary theorised by Nichols is known as the Observational Mode of Representation and Nichols believes the aim of this mode is to capture reality. Observational documentaries are often characterised as having a more accurate sense of the duration of events, the purpose of the observational mode is to record reality without interference. The spectator assumes that the scenes aren’t staged or rehearsed and that the filmmaker is detached from the events shown in the documentary. Personally, I believe that observational documentaries are the best mode to represent actuality because there is no interference. For example; 102 Minutes That Changed America applies to this mode of representation and showcases the events of 9/11 through real footage and eye-witness accounts from real individuals. I believe that 102 Minutes authentically captures reality because the director does not control the filming and the footage was not shot for the purpose of making a documentary.
Observational documentaries often include the use of handheld cameras and are focused on objectivity, there are no voice-overs and no interviews included and with the presence of the documentary maker not being apparent. The subjects included in the documentary also usually have no knowledge of the fact that they are being filmed. This mode of documentary also often has the filmmaker taking a “neutral stance” from the subject matter, however you could argue that the filmmaker is not taking a neutral stance because of the selection of footage included in the documentary and the use of editing devices. 102 Minutes is an example of a documentary that applies to the Observational Mode of Representation because it portrays the events of 9/11 in real-time as they occurred through the insertion of a timer that counts down the minutes that the event lasted. The documentary also applies to this mode because it features handheld footage, synchronised diegetic sound, has a lack of music and the footage is placed in chronological order through the use of continuity editing.
Direct Cinema is an American cinema movement that originated during the late 50s and featured a trio of documentaries released as political statements towards the 1960 Presidential Election. The goals of this movement involved the presence of the camera not changing reality and to not be obtrusive. There are six commandments of the movement that involve the lack of rehearsals, interviews, commentary, film lights, stage events and dissolve. In addition, Direct Cinema has often been compared to the French cinema movement known simply as Cinéma Vérité because they both share similar goals and are key progenitors of the fly-on-the-wall format that has dominated the documentary form of filmmaking. The Observational Mode of Representation has roots in Direct Cinema as the both share common aspects such as not wanting to change reality or intrude events. 102 Minutes does not directly follow the commandments of Direct Cinema but ultimately still follows them as the cuts, transitions, non-traditional interviews and commentary provided in the footage from 9/11. However, the inclusion of these effects, interviews and commentary are only used to help the viewer follow the events as they unfolded and not to change them
Free Cinema is another type of influential filmmaking movement that took place during the late 50s and was responsible for the resurgence of British documentary. It served as the title for six short documentaries that were shown at the National Film Theatre in London created by a group of young filmmakers and critics. These young filmmakers were motivated to begin this movement because they were struggling to get their films shown and eventually releases that these short documentaries shared common characteristics since they had been made independently. The movement marked a new beginning for filmmaking and the young filmmakers stated "British cinema [is] still obstinately class-bound; still rejecting the stimulus of contemporary life, as well as the responsibility to criticise; still reflecting a metropolitan, Southern English culture which excludes the rich diversity of tradition and personality which is the whole of Britain." These filmmakers wanted to reflect Britain without to use of stereotypes and without patronising the working class, they also acknowledged their "belief in freedom, the importance of people and in the significance of the everyday" in their manifesto. The Observational Mode of Representation has roots in Direct Cinema as the both share common aspects such as the belief in freedom of speech and wanting to reflect reality without intrusion. 102 Minutes follows the beliefs of Free Cinema because the footage included in the documentary is authentic actuality footage from the events of 9/11 and does not aim to encourage stereotypes or patronise individuals.
When compared with the Expository Mode, the Observational Mode intends to capture reality in a more authentic approach while Expository intends to reflect reality. Expository documentaries are considered less authentic because they typically features re-enactments and the insertion of voice-over while Observational documentaries are considered more authentic because they typically feature raw footage from actual events. I believe that Observational is a more authentic mode of representation since the aim is to capture reality; however, you could argue that the mode isn’t truly authentic as stated because the filmmakers could edit sequences out of order or provide interruptions to the actuality.
The role of actuality footage in the observational mode encourages the spectator to accept that the documentary provides the truth while the acknowledgment of the conventions included in this mode make it easier to accept that the footage is an actuality. However, you could argue that due to any minor