Since the 19th century, as the western world and its citizens have slowly transitioned from a lifestyle based on production, to one based on consumption, many argue that we are now living in the midst of a consumer culture (McDonald and Wearing, 2013, 21). This is characterised by a society in which the entire cultural system and economy are based upon the consumption of goods and services, which it can be argued, in turn reduces the population’s interest and use of traditional social structures, values and practices (Sassatelli, 2007, 1). Perhaps no better example of this transference of people’s energy from traditional social structures and items of importance to commodities is the surge in popularity of ‘fast fashion’. Whilst some critics argue that consumer culture is a blight on traditional social norms, leading to alienation and commodification of lifestyle, others believe that the increase in consumption of goods and services can aid in redefining social status and also forms a method of self-expression. This study aims to critically analyse how fast fashion, with a particular focus on H&M, is affecting society and whether or not the far reaching impacts which have been experienced are positive or negative through the application of a number of historical theories.
Fast fashion is a relatively recent concept which has moved consumer clothing practices away from the traditional model in which clothes were marketed based on a six month lifecycle at a higher price, to a constantly changing selection of more inexpensive items (Gabriellie, Baghi, Codeluppi, 2013, 206). Stores which exhibit the following two characteristics are generally considered to be proprietors of fast fashion clothing: a short window between clothes being produced and distributed, and trendy, fashionable products which are affordable and always changing. This approach has been adopted by a number of stores such as Zara, Uniqlo, Forever 21, and H&M (Wood, 2015). While the products sold as fast fashion are typically considered lower quality, they generally appear to be visibly on par with higher end products and many consumers feel happy combining them with high fashion items to create their unique look (Gabriellie, Baghi, Codeluppi, 2013, 206).
H&M is a Swedish clothing and accessories retailer which was founded in 1947 by Erling Persson. Since then, the company has rapidly expanded and spans many markets around the globe (H&M, 2015). According to the the company’s brand guidelines, the overall business concept is “fashion and quality at the best price” and they aim to be value-driven, customer focussed and creative (H&M, 2015). This value-driven attitude is reflected in the company’s low cost offerings, such as their infamous $4.95 dress, which, like the rest of their regularly updated products, are inspired by recent runway items, giving consumers the ability to replicate designer looks at a fraction of the cost (Yaeger, 2010). In regards to their high turnover of clothing, Karl-Johan Persson, the CEO of H&M claims that a new item of clothing can go from a concept sketch to a store within three weeks (Otterson, 2015). In consequence, it is clear that H&M is one of today’s best examples of fast fashion due to the two previously mentioned characteristics – short turnaround on stock and fashionable, affordable products – being satisfied. While these low costs and efficient methods of disseminating new items of clothing to consumers have led to an increase in popularity of the brand, many argue that for a number of reasons fast fashion is an example of the negative impacts a consumer culture has on society.
German philosopher and economist Karl Marx is one of history’s most vocal opponents to the ‘consumer culture’ which began to spread across the western world following the conclusion of the second world war. For a number of reasons, he ascertained that capitalism was not a fair system for the vast majority of people (Boot, 2008). Firstly, his theory of alienation outlines that the supposedly efficient methods of production in capitalist society which allow for goods to be produced at a lower cost go against the fundamental nature of humanity. This is due to the disparity between the combined labour and use value of commodities, compared to the market value which society assigns based upon demand. This in turn means that, to a greater or lesser extent, consumers are unaware of the range of labour and materials present in the goods which they consume.
H&M’s range of clothing is produced by third party factories, which are predominantly located in Asia (H&M, 2015). The workers in these factories produce 600 million items annually for H&M’s 3,200 stores and while H&M claim that they treat workers fairly, in order to be profitable and produce to the highest efficiency, the majority of workers complete very tedious roles, which leave them feeling disenfranchised and not a part of something meaningful (Chow, 2015). In addition, the wages of these workers is low, with Cambodian employees reportedly being paid the nation’s minimum wage of $140 per month (Bain, 2015). This reflects another aspect of Marx’s alienation theory regarding the working class being trapped in a constant cycle because the goods they produce, clothes in the case of H&M factory workers, are sold on at elevated prices by the owners of capital (H&M), aiding in increasing their wealth, at the expense of the workers (McDonald and Wearing, 2013, 22).
Not only can this cycle be considered unhealthy for the workers but also unsustainable for the planet. A recent report by the National Resource Defense Council’s found that clothing production is one of the most polluting industries in the world. Furthermore, the major component in the majority of H&M's clothes (cotton) is one of the most toxic crops, accounting for 25% of world insecticide and 12% of world pesticide use. It is also highly water intensive, requiring 20,000 litres to produce 1kg of cotton, enough for a t-shirt and jeans (Chow, 2015)
Building upon the work of Marx, Erich Fromm claimed that the end of traditional institutions and hierarchical social systems has led to people feeling the need to construct a uniquely personal self-identity to survive: "Success depends largely on how well a person sells himself on the market, how well he gets his personality across, how nice a ‘package’ he is; whether he is ‘cheerful’, ‘sound’, ‘aggressive’, ‘reliable’, ‘ambitious’” (McDonald and Wearing, 2013, 25). It can be argued that fast fashion provides a means through which consumers are able to construct the aforementioned personal self-identity In regards to H&M, the rapid turnover of stock leads to an unlimited ability for consumers to reinvent themselves and their identity. As such, it can be reasoned that when people place this greater value on their outer appearance, they are commodifying themselves. According to Fromm, the commodification of self which, in turn, is an aspect of western capitalist economic theory, is the greatest threat to psychological health for the population (Fenichel, 2013, 843).
This is reinforced by the belief of Georg Simmel that capitalism has led to the isolation of individuals and replaced religion as the basis for individuals to construct a self-identity. In turn, he argues that consumerism and the money economy are a destabilising force due to the fact that money is meant to be circulated, in turn meaning all activities are sped up (McDonald and Wearing, 2013, 24-25). In modern day society, this view is reflected in fast fashion by journalist Marc Bain (2015), who writes that fast fashion customers: “run the risk of ending up on a hedonic treadmill in which the continuous pursuit of new stuff leaves them unhappy and unfulfilled."
Contrastingly, Veblen positions today’s consumer as one who undertakes an activity he describes as conspicuous consumption. This term describes how members of society, regardless of their actual socioeconomic status, are able to gain an advantage and leverage their position through displays of wealth in order to communicate standing and status (McDonald and Wearing, 2013, 25). In consequence, some may argue that fast fashion provides a means through which consumers are able to undertake ‘conspicuous consumption’ in order to drastically alter their outward appearance. As previously mentioned, clothing from stores such as H&M are generally inspired by runway trends, so, consumers are able to purport a more wealthy appearance in regards to their clothing choices with minimal risk, due to the low cost of the garments (Gabriellie, Baghi, Codeluppi, 2013, 206).
Furthermore, Woodward (2002, 213) believes that traditional social structures are no longer of significance to society and it is the responsibility of companies, particularly accessible brands such as H&M, to aid in assisting individuals with choosing their identity, cementing their position in society from new forms of lifestyle and consumption.