Abu Hamid Muhammad Ibn-e- Muhammad Al-Ghazali is one of the greatest Islamic lawyers, theologians and spiritual thinkers of all times. Al Ghazali was born in 1058 near Tus which is situated in the northern part of Iran and died in 19th December 1111. His father passed away when he was very young but he was able to avail quality education regarding Islamic sciences in his home town of Tus. Soon he was given a status of a learned scholar in the fields of both philosophy and religion and was appointed as a professor at the newly founded Nizamiyah College at Baghdad. He is considered a pioneer of coherent doubt and skepticism and his works for example, “The Incoherence of Philosophers” have changed the course of Islamic philosophy. He was also called “The Proof of Islam” and undoubtedly he was worthy of that name, some muslims even ranked him to be the greatest muslim after Prophet Muhammad. The Shafi’s jurist, Al-Subki claimed that Al-Ghazali would have been the next Prophet after Muhammad.
Theory of Caliphate
Al-Ghazali has diverse views regarding Caliphate. First of all according to him the relationship of the caliphate with the Shariah is more arduous to define than that of the Ulama (recognized scholars) or the community. The purpose of the caliph is to see that the laws laid down by the Shariah are obeyed by all which includes the members of the community and the government officials. Along with being the executive of the Shariah the caliph is also the commander in chief of the Muslim army and the leader in the formal religious practices authorized by the Shariah for example the congregation prayers. He is a political institution and the head of the religious foundation of Islam. The political manners and etiquettes of the caliph must be in accordance with the Shariah meaning his political behavior should not violate the rules and limits prescribed by the Shariah. He asserted that the obligatory character of the caliphate was based on the Shariah making the Shariah the basis of the caliphate. The khalifa always obeys the Shariah and Ghazali clearly states that that the objective of the caliphate is the execution of the Shariah. He did not accept the conception of the Mutazilites that the fundamental character of the caliphate is based upon rationality. He shows hostility towards those who disapprove the fundamental character of the caliphate. The people who argue with Al-Ghazali believe that the caliphate no longer exists because there is no living person with the qualities necessary to serve as a caliph. He argues on the question that what will happen to the social, political and economic phenomena superintended and managed by the Shariah if the caliph does not exist. He claims that the caliph is the head of the state and without his existence no judgment of a Qadi, no contract and no testament would be authentic or legal. In other words the power of all Qadi’s is derived from the caliph himself. Therefore if the khalifa is absent then it will lead to social disintegration (disorder and strife).
Nature of Caliphate
AL-Ghazali in his theories clearly informs us about the nature of the caliphate. The caliphate uses the necessary power bestowed upon it to maintain peace and order in the entire state and the muslim community. It has the authority to use force in order to keep the social and economic position of the state in balance. Caliphate itself is a symbol which represents the collaborative unity of the entire muslim community and also its historical continuity. Within caliphate all the muslim’s act unitedly. Lastly since its functional and institutive authority is derived from the Shariah itself it is the only legitimate form of political government in Islam. Its legitimacy as a form of government proves all acts of political and legal nature and it establishes caliphate as a center point of Shariah in the community. For the Sunni community it is a symbol of divine guidance since it is obedient towards the Shariah.
Regarding the nature of the caliph himself Al-Ghazali gives us a list of qualifications and character traits necessary for the status. The caliph must be without any physical and mental defect. Meaning he must be mentally sound and sane along with being physically functional. The caliph must be honorable, courageous and wise. He should not be a coward and must have a status in society before becoming a caliph. He should treat people in the same way and should not be biased towards anyone. He must be able to protect the muslims against their enemies and establish internal and external order. He must have the power to declare jihad or Holy war. He should have a command on the Shariah .He must be able to administer the affairs of the state and also make judgments and decisions according to the Shariah. He should not be proud or arrogant and must practice the religious virtues of piety, humility and charity. Lastly it is most important that the caliph must be a descendant of the Quraish which according to Ghazali is an “Abbasid”. These qualities represent the concrete equivalents that the caliph must have and these are not just abstract qualities. However these requirements were never completely fulfilled, the only condition which was fulfilled was that of a Quraishite ancestry and for hundreds of years the caliph had been an Abbasid. The Caliph has a special connection with the trustworthy source of Ijma.
The Nomination Process of the Caliph
According to Ghazali there are three ways according to which a person qualified of being a caliph may be chosen. A caliph may be chosen by designation of a Prophet, meaning the Prophet himself choses the caliph. Secondly a caliph may be designated by a ruling caliph and lastly by the designation of the holder of actual power. In Al-Ghazali’s days only the last alternative applied. However designation alone is not sufficient for the appointment of the caliph and there must be a pledge or oath (Bay’a) which is to be performed by great men and the people of loosing and binding. Though it is difficult to ascertain who these people are but generally the people of loosing and binding are the Ulama and the great men are those who have some authority and means of power. In simple words the most powerful Seljuk (Turk) leader appoints the caliph and then the appointee is overviewed by the less powerful Seljuk’s, local princes and the bureaucratic chiefs. Then finally the Ulama give their permission to the appointee whose nomination is then announced in public for example in mosques and then the people accept the decision.
Ghazali believes that all of the process which takes place after the nomination by the Sultan is just a formality because he is the holder of power and authority. Al-Ghazali’s constitutive process of electing the Khalifa by no means contravenes the requirements laid down by the Shariah, it is a Shari process and the constituent power for the appointment of the caliph is the sultan. The sultan used to be concerned that his nomination or appointee should be appealing to the people and the Ulama. If he had not been concerned about these two groups and his own preservation he would have not selected a caliph in the first place. The government of the sultan is only valid and acceptable when it is recognized by the caliph. In other words when the Sultan takes the oath of allegiance to the caliph his government then becomes legal and official.
Functions of the Caliph
The caliph does not only apprehend the functions of the Sultan but he also follows the legal and religious duties imposed by the Shariah. Ghazali emphasized that the political affairs of the state should be left to the Sultan and the Caliph should restrict himself to religious and spiritual functions as he is the “Shadow of Allah” on the Earth. The caliphate symbolizes the whole Islamic government and it is both a political and a religious institution. Al-Ghazali claims that it is not necessary that the caliph should carry out the religious duties laid down by the Shariah through his own intellect and mental capacity. He may take the help or aid of intellectual people around him to carry out his duties in accordance to the Shariah. According to Ghazali there are three main elements in Caliphate; the Caliph, the Sultan and the Ulama. All of them agree on a particular degree of authority (Shariah) within the Islamic government and each one of them perform their own duties given by that authority.