A major learning theory is the psychological perspective Behaviourism. Work within this perspective was first carried out in the early part of the 20th century (Scales, 2008, p.58)
Behaviourism is concerned with observable changes in behaviour which can be scientifically measured. This perspective is a comparative approach which suggests human learning is by association and in response to external stimuli. Pavlov (1848 – 1936) found that paring the sound of a bell with a dog’s salvation (in response to food) created a conditioned response whereby the dogs would eventually salivate on the ringing of a bell alone. This neutral stimulus (ringing of a bell) became associated with the unconditioned stimulus (food) and became the conditioned stimulus creating a conditioned response (salvation) (Avis, Fisher, & Thompson, 2014, p.88). This type of learning became known as classical conditioning as it was the first of its kind. Another type of learning within the behaviourist perspective is Operant conditioning, first conceptualised by Bernard Skinner (1904-1990) Skinner’s experiments showed that animals could be trained to complete increasingly complex tasks with reward and punishment. For example, within the Skinner box he trained animals to press a lever through trial and error using food pellets as a reward. (Scales, 2008, p.60). This is known as positive reinforcement as the animal’s behaviour is being strengthened by a positive reward. Similarly, his experiments with rats demonstrated what is known as negative reinforcement by repeatedly switching on a low volt of electricity through the rat until it pressed the correct lever to turn off the voltage. This therefore, strengthened the animal’s behaviour in a negative way as the rat had learnt to quickly press the lever to turn off the negative stimulus. A key difference between classical and operant conditioning is that the former is based on automatic unconscious responses to external stimulus e.g. the quickening beating of your heart if you were suddenly frightened by something. Operant conditioning is based on behavioural responses which are voluntary by nature and shaped by reward or punishment.
Unlike behaviourism the psychological perspective of cognitivism is not concerned with observable changes in behaviour but rather an individual’s mental processes and the acquisition and organisation of knowledge (Scales, 2008, p.60). Cognitivism has roots from the Gestalt psychologists which looked at the ways in which individual’s construct meaning from sensory information (Avis, Fisher, & Thompson, 2014, p.90). Jerome Bruner makes a clear distinction between behaviourism and cognitivism in that ‘knowing’ is not passively receiving and associating stimuli then responding with rewards rather learning is directed by how you are thinking about what you are encountering (Avis, Fisher, & Thompson, 2014, p.90) Cognitive theory looks at the learning process of a student and investigates how information is received, organised, stored and retrieved by the mind (Ertmer and Newby, 2013). Learning does not just encompass environmental cues and instructional components but the ways in which students attend to, code and transform information with consideration of the influence of student’s thoughts, beliefs, attitudes, and values on learning (Ertmer and Newby, 2013). A fundamental facet to the cognitive approach and the learning process is the role of memory. Learning requires information to be stored in memory in an organised and meaningful way. Craik & Lockheart (1972) proposed the levels of processing theory whereby the depth at which the material is processed or encoded determines later retention). Burners ideas are associated with discovery learning where he argues that to fully understand a subject you must grasp the general principles but also have a development of attitude towards development and enquiry (Avis, Fisher, & Thompson, 2014, p.90). For example, processing information at a shallow level would mean simply attending to the physical characteristics of material such as copying down the words you are reading and hence encoding at a shallow level (Craik & Lockheart, 1972). However, coding information in terms of its meaning means the information is processed at a deep level and more likely to recall. (Craik & Lockheart, 1972 For example, making summary notes of key points while reading enables this type of processing, also referred to as semantic processing (Craik & Lockheart, 1972).
The humanist perspective on learning focuses on ‘self’ and what makes us human so we can cultivate the development our human potential (Avis, Fisher, & Thompson, 2014, p.95). This idea of ‘self’ seems to be missing from the behaviourist and cognitive approaches insofar as they have a detached entity which does not encompass the vast subjectivity of what makes us human (Avis, Fisher, & Thompson, 2014, p.94). Humanists argue experts are often deemed to hold the theoretical keys in determining what is best for students, i.e., what students should learn and how they should lean it (TLLP94). Humanist psychology sees true learning coming from within, as emphasised by Dewey (1938) which is a person-centred approach to learning (Avis, Fisher, & Thompson, 2014, p.95). Carl Rogers (1902 -1987), if a person is within a safe environment they can express themselves openly and find solutions to their own problems and facilitate the development of confidence and self-esteem (Avis, Fisher, & Thompson, 2014, p.95). This idea of creating an emotionally safe and secure environment is closely linked to the humanist approach to educational learning in terms of we all need to feel good about ourselves (Scales, 2008, p.71). Rogers argues, well-being and the development of positive self-concept (how you view yourself) are key accepts to learning individual (Scales, 2008, p.71). This is known as the’ Pygmalion effect’ which is linked to Rogers notion of the unconditional positive reward whereby no matter how difficult the learner, the teacher must respect and value them as this behaviour may eventually be ‘modelled’ by the learner (Scales, 2008, p.71). Maslow (1908-1970 model of hierarchy of needs suggests there are a range of human needs from basic to higher level. The higher-level needs relate to our learning, cognitive and self-fulfilment which he theorises cannot be met unless our basic needs have been met (Scales, 2008, p.73). These levels include, Physiological, safety and security, love and belonging, self-esteem, cognitive and Self-actualisation (Scales, 2008, p.73). Clearly, not having the basic level of needs such as shelter warm and clothing would hinder your interest and ability to learn. However, within the lifelong learning sector Maslow hierarchy of needs makes teachers aware of the whole experience and subjectivity of their leaners and therefore provides a useful device for understanding learning and motivation (Scales, 2008, p.73).
Behaviourism is criticised for reducing human learning to nothing more than a stimulus response association (Avis, Fisher, & Thompson, 2014, p.85). However, Parish and Parish (1989) suggest using positive reinforcement can meet the basic needs of learners and enhance their attendance and participation in the classroom (M.Ed, 2015). For example, learners who perceive a classroom which has a positive climate with fair academic exceptions acts as a positive reward and strengthens the behaviour of attendance and participation (M.Ed, 2015). In terms of post-compulsory education many adults go back into the lifelong learning sector seeking to gain qualifications within Maths and English. However, their memories of education are authoritarian and rigid which has acted as a negative stimulus (Scales, 2008, p.60). In terms of the Behaviourist perspective, punishment from past teachers in terms of harassment, verbal putdowns and labelling has acted as a mechanism to control a class (Geffner, Galasso, & Braverman, 2005, p.141), and perhaps through outcome (classroom control) reinforced their behaviour). However, for the learner it has created an unconscious fear response to learning and a learning barrier. Trainee teachers need to be aware of this effect on post compulsory learners as this will help them devise ways to help students with learning barriers. For example, replacing a fear response with a relaxing response to a feared stimulus can help reverse automatic negative emotions (Pastorino & Doyle-Portillo, 2008, p.55). In the context of a literacy or numeracy class this could be achieved by playing relaxing music at the start of an activity. Furthermore, giving positive rewards, encouraging comments and developmental feedback in response to class contributions and activities’ are important as this will positively reinforcing further student involvement (Scales, 2008, p.60). An example of a numeracy activity which reinforces student involvement could be Maths Bingo with a small prize for the winner. The role of the teacher here is much to do with teacher being physically involved, a type of learning by demonstration and doing as opposed to students carry out individual cognitive numeracy tasks.
Clearly, human learning encompasses other factors such as thinking, reasoning, understanding and the acquisition of knowledge. Bruner first introduced the concept ‘spiral curriculum’ meaning fundamental concepts of a subject being introduced through a child development with increasing complexity (Avis, Fisher, & Thompson, 2014, p.90). Bruner linked the spiral curriculum to three ways of processing information which he called modes of representation (Bentham, 2010, p67). Enactive stage, referring to muscle memory, from learning how to grasp a rattle to riding a bike (Bentham, 2010, p67). Iconic stage referring to the ability to remember information in the form of mental images and the symbolic mode, remembering using symbols and codes, e.g., when we use language and mathematics rules (Bentham, 2010, p67). Most post-compulsory students who have a moderate cognitive impairment will be studying curriculum with content that is typical of younger child (M.Ed, 2015). In terms of classroom numeracy activity, the concept of weight could be taught at various ages using a spiral curriculum. For example, the iconic stage could be utilised by students participating in weighing parcels off different weights and using multi-link pieces to balance scales (M.Ed, 2015). Developing from the Iconic to the Symbolic stage students in this context could be given a set of questions which represent ideas through symbols and rules e.g., the density of air is 1.3 kg/m3. Calculate the mass of a balloon which holds 0.0035 m3 of air (M.Ed, 2015). Bruner believed students must identify key principles for themselves rather than accept teacher explanations (Woolfolk & Margetts, 2012, p.289). This is known as discovery learning which is an approach where the learner solves problem, and makes informed guesses to enable them to discover the basic principles for themselves (Woolfolk & Margetts, 2012, p.289). For example, within an English class teachers could ask questions like ‘what is the rule for grouping these words together’ then provide appropriate material and encourage the students to make observations and use hypothesis testing (Woolfolk & Margetts, 2012, p.289). The role of the teacher here is much to more to do with recognising the cognitive structures used by the learner and being a reflective thinker in terms of how the teacher understands how leaner learn.