Introduction
Society today for children and young people is a very different setting to that of our grandfathers and grandmothers who endured the uncertainty and fear of living in war time conditions. They were a generation of people with great resilience and this is a trait largely missing in the current young generation which is largely through no fault of their own.
The impact of disadvantage on children and young people comes in many different forms and affects all ages, regardless of their economic stability, educational background, social and community context, health and health care and neighbourhood and built environment. However, there are different groupings that are more at risk to disadvantage and those social determinants listed above can provide a picture as to why this is the case.
Throughout this literature, I will discuss and examine the role of poverty and how it is a key factor in increasing the risk of children or young people experiencing disadvantage. I will provide evidences of legislation and the interventions in place to tackle the impact of disadvantage. The structure of the review is as follows:
- The ACE’s
- Vulnerable groups of children or young people
- Poverty
- Mental Health
- Parenting/Neglect/Maltreatment
- Conclusion
Adverse Childhood Experiences (The ACE’s)
A survey conducted in England and Wales and published by (Scottish Public Health Network 2016) highlighted that almost 50% of people experience at least one ACE. The impact of experiencing one of the ACE’s can affect one of the following; reduce life expectancy, increase chances of substance misuse, encourage children to indulge in high risk behaviours, restrict social and emotional cognitive skills and further preventing the development of key social skills.
“Intra-familial events or conditions causing chronic stress responses in the child’s immediate environment. These include notions of maltreatment and deviation from societal norms” (Scottish Public Health Network 2016)
Three mechanisms for how ACEs cause harm have been suggested:
- Health-harming behaviours;
- Social determinants of health; and
- Neurobiological and genetic pathways.
Children who encounter multiple adverse childhood experiences can lead to the child or young person experiencing repeated trauma. The consequence of this can be forever lasting and many children are at risk of (PTSD) which can have a major effect on how a person’s brain would function normally, hindering their development. The connection between the upstairs and downstairs parts of the brain become detached and lead to many factors which restrict the development of the child or young person, such as, their ability to learn. This is because key components needed for learning struggle to function in the brain after trauma.
Other effects of trauma can lead to children struggling to form positive relationships with adults and their peers. This is mainly down to their lack of trust and security around others as a result of the traumatic stress they have encountered. This can inhibit or delay their development of age appropriate social skills which can lead on to the restriction of healthy relationships in childhood and through into adulthood.
Children suffering from trauma tend to develop a behavioural coping system which is their own way of communicating something is not right in their life. The effects of behaviour originate from similar problems which create academic difficulties and can lead to confrontation in the classroom, children struggling to regulate their emotions, them becoming disengaged with learning and forming a negative self-image of their ability. For many of these children who have behavioural issues and who are deeply misunderstood, the failure to provide the correct support and nurture can leave that child or young person with little hope of enjoying a normal balanced life.
Interventions that can help reduce ACEs by
- Preventing household adversity
- Supporting parents and families
- Building resilience in children and wider communities
- Enquiring about ACEs routinely in your services to respond appropriately
- Encouraging wider awareness and understanding about ACEs and their impact on health and behaviour
- Using encounters with adults in services such as homelessness services, addiction, prison or maternity services, to also consider the impacts on their children or future children.
Vulnerable groups
Unfortunately, there are different groups within society who are more at risk of disadvantage due to their social determinants. What I would like to make clear is that a child cannot be written off at birth just because of the postcode they grow up in or the fact their parents fall into a low income bracket.
‘’Put simply, a child’s socio-economic background – things they can’t choose like the street they grew up on and how much their parents earn – have too much of an impact on how well they do at school and the choices they have later in life.’’ (Teach First)
There are many reasons as to why children who are born, live and work in less affluent socially determinant areas will succeed in life regardless of external influences. However, most people living in less prosperous environments that are characterised by high levels of crime, poor health care and little prospect of employment, unfortunately, face many struggles in comparison to those in an affluent environment. It is worrying that in the 21st century where you are born and raised can have such an impact on your opportunity for learning, can determine your life expectancy and most importantly if you live or die in some countries a theory which is strongly supported by (Prof Michael Marmot Vol 365 March 19, 2005). Social determinants are a major contributing factor to the type of life a child will experience, as it is widely recognised that health follows a social gradient, better health is associated with increasing socioeconomic position.
Poverty
Growing up in socioeconomically deprived neighborhoods can lead to children experiencing many disadvantages which accumulate through many years of hardship. Poverty can have multiple negative impacts on a child’s life such as, inadequate healthcare, social deprivation, and poor quality of housing, broken homes, restricted cognitive development, low psychosocial development and low educational attainment. While none of the inequalities listed can be controlled by the child they are greatly impacted as a result of them which is highlighted in the (Child Commissioner report 2017) The effects of poverty can lead to a child feeling embarrassed and isolated from friends which can have a direct effect on their well-being. The lack of material belongings can lead to bullying and intimidation or general teasing from peer groups. All of these impacts can cause strain within the family as parent child relationships break down (Martin, K. and Hart, R. 2011).
In the UK over the last four decades’ child poverty has increased from 14% of all children in 1979 to 30% of all children in 2018 (New Statesman, 3 August 2018). When you compare those statistics to global statistics produced by UNICEF, the trend is very different in the UK. (UNICEF) states that world poverty is in decline throughout the world and if the trend continues extreme poverty could be eradicated by 2030. Compare that to the increasing levels of UK poverty and the picture is very different.
A recent (Fiscal report) has estimated an additional 800,000 children will be pushed into poverty by 2020. This is in complete contrast to what government had targeted in their (Child Poverty Act 2010) which claimed by 2020/21 child poverty would be eradicated. These figures will be greatly impacted by the recent (Welfare Reform Act 2016) which will lead to many more families being pushed into poverty.
The changes in welfare support has seen a benefit cap put in place to restrict the funds many families can access because of what, and how many benefits a household can apply for. Universal credit had been pitched by government as a simpler method of applying for benefit. However, it has reduced the average household income by £48 per week and up to £2500 a year. It is too early to determine the full extent of the damage the new welfare system will cause in the lives of our young people. What is certain, the children of those families reliant on additional support will experience further economic and material deprivation, meaning less money is available to provide for their needs. As a consequence many of these children will go without essentials, such as clothing and food. This will of course lead to greater poverty and anxiety for low-income families. Children also miss out on certain experiences such as playing for sporting teams, youth clubs and travelling. This in turn can hinder developing friendship groups or increase the feeling of being excluded.
Unemployment is regarded as one of the primary driving factors behind poverty. However, those working in low paid jobs have their own struggles to bear with the cost of living and inflation growing at a greater rate than salaries are rising (Martin, K. and Hart, R. 2011). Poverty is not simply surviving on a limited budget. It is a daily struggle which can erode away the dignity of the individuals affected and those who encounter it. A misconception in society that if you are employed and earning a living you cannot fall into poverty which could not be further from the truth. The number of families experiencing working poverty is increasing. Also, it is widely recognised that that young people who come from low income homes are more likely to be unemployed or working in an unskilled job which is poorly paid, later in life.
Poverty plays a significant role when children attend school. The risk of bullying or being socially accepted become issues for those in poverty because of material things you don’t own like clothes, the latest games console even they type of school bag you have, can inform your peers of the type of wealth you have. This might explain why research has found that only 15% of pupils from disadvantaged backgrounds in England said they were happy and felt socially included in school. This figure is well below that of neighbouring European countries in the UK.
The gap between FSM and Non-FSM continues to be an issue within education relating to achievement and socioeconomic circumstances. However, there has been progress in the attainment of poorer children in the last few years. Those pupils who receive free school meals attaining five GCSE grades has doubled in the period between 2005-13 meaning the gap has narrowed but more effort is needed to bring this gap to an acceptable level (Supporting the attainment of disadvantaged pupils, November 2015, NFER). The change in fortune for those in disadvantage can be linked with a more diverse curriculum structured in such a way that allows various skills to be displayed.
According to (Education Week) chronic absenteeism occurs at rates three to four times higher in socially deprived neighbourhoods. Missing school can also be linked to the lack of money in a household and in Northern Ireland we have the potential withdrawal of EMA that will impact social mobility and discourage those in disadvantage from continuing in school.
Since 2011, there has been £3.75 billion invested by government to ensure children in poverty reach their potential. There is a new initiative called Pupil Premium and they are responsible for other major funding projects throughout the UK to tackle the affect of poverty in education.
As previously mentioned, poverty affects children in many forms and plays a role in numerous factors which directly prohibit or restrict a child/young person’s whole development and at worse can be life threatening.
Mental Health
The risk of children suffering mental health can be linked to the mother’s state of health either during or after pregnancy. Prenatal and post-natal disorders can result in the initial interactions between mother and baby being negative. Evidence from research suggests this can lead to low intellectual, social, emotional and psychological development.
Children or young people growing up in low income households and living in socially deprived neighbourhoods are more likely to experience mental health issues than their affluent peers. Children and young people who live poverty stricken lives encounter different hardships to those of their affluent peers which increase the risk of key triggers to mental health issues such as anxiety, low self-esteem and depression. (The Children’s Society Poor Mental Health March 2016) Children can become isolated from their peers for fear of bullying or because bullying is already be occurring.
Learning to cope with a child with mental health issues can be stressful for a parent and there is evidence to suggest that in some cases they can become neglectful of their child’s needs. This can lead to strain and stress between a parent and child. Recent studies suggest parents who live in poverty are less resilient and are less likely to cope in stressful situations (Cleaver, 2011). There is also the possibility that if the parents suffer from poor mental health themselves they may not have the capability to provide meaningful support for their child (Institute of Public Health 2012).
A child coping with the demands of a parent with mental health issues is no easy task and further places a child at risk of disadvantage. They risk missing out on normal childhood experiences such as, fun and play, finding friendship groups and developing naturally as a person at each of the different stages in life. In some extreme cases, the child becomes the main carer within the household, which can lead to disengagement from education and ultimately leads to underachievement.
Figures published in the UK from various sources; show that one in eight people under age of 19 in England had a disorder in 2017. Worryingly, the number of young people experiencing mental health in Northern Ireland is much greater at 44% between 16 – 25 year olds. The report by (Princes Trust 2014) which was published in the Belfast Telegraph paints a very bleak picture of Northern Ireland’s health problems and how mental health disorders are deeply embedded within our society. Studies suggest this is a direct result of the conflict which dominated Northern Ireland’s past and the division the still exists between communities. What is extremely upsetting are the large number of young people who experience mental health issues, but fail to receive the appropriate intervention at an early age. This has had an impact on the number of young people committing suicide which is rising at a greater rate than the rest of the UK. This is further evident in an article written by (Joe Wallen June 2018), where he highlighted a report published by the (Samaritans). The statistics of overall suicide rates in the UK had increased by 3.8% from 2014 to 2016. However, in Northern Ireland the number of deaths linked to suicide increased during the same period by 18.5%. This quite frightening to think that number of males and females in Northern Ireland taking their lives each year are amongst the highest figures in Europe.
What is refreshing to read is that Theresa May has vowed to tackle mental health, and has pledged a real-terms funding increase of at least £2bn for mental health services in England by 2023-24. This will hopefully lead to the other governing bodies within the UK following suit.
Parenting Styles/Neglect/Maltreatment
The concept of parenting styles was first introduced by psychologist (Diane Baumrind in 1971). The four parenting styles evolved from what she identified as parenting behaviours, warmth and control. By combining these two types of behaviours in different contexts the parenting styles emerge which are listed below:
- Authoritative
- Authoritarian
- Permissive
- Neglectful
For the purpose of this essay I will discuss the style of neglectful parenting, how it is a disadvantage and what impact a neglectful parent can have on a child. Research suggests that poverty can be a contributing factor of neglectful parenting which has been linked to an increased risk of child abuse as (Bazalgette, Rahilly, Trevelyan 2015, Luke et al, 2014) research has revealed. This is not to say that neglect and maltreatment only take place in socially deprived areas nor does it suggest that those living a more affluent life style are not experiencing neglect. There are pockets within affluent areas where those in disadvantage are unable to avail of the same support of those in less affluent areas and where deprivation is much publicised.
The impact of maltreatment and neglect can have on a child or young person include:
- Depressive disorders
- Anxiety disorders
- Eating disorders
- Behavioural and conduct disorders
- Drug use
- Vulnerability to sexual exploitation.
All of the vulnerable groups, which, I have examined, are at risk of underachievement in education based on current measures used to identify achievement. Economic disadvantage is recognised by educational authorities and government as a leading factor for underachievement. Research studies on brain development suggest that there are direct links between a parent’s social status and a child’s cognitive development (Chin-Lun et al 2015). Neurodevelopment as it’s known, tracks the development of the brain and what different stimulates must be present early in a child’s life to influence development which are;
- Basic care and safety
- Emotional warmth and guidance
- Stimulation stability
For children living in socioeconomic disadvantage many of these stimulates are absent during the nurturing stages of infancy through the different cognitive stages of childhood which further fuels evidence of a neglectful parenting style (Kendall, S., Straw, S., Jones, M., Springate, I. and Grayson, H. 2008). This lack of early intervention from parents in aiding the brain development of their child will continue to have a lasting affect into adulthood. Those from disadvantaged backgrounds are more likely to give up on education, employment or training (NEET) and are at higher risk of ending up in poverty as adults.
Unfortunately, a parent’s short falling as a parent is not the only disadvantage linked with social deprivation in education. Children who come from low income households are more likely to be absent from school, have low aspirations and less drive to use education as a tool for their own benefit to change their current circumstances. Instead choose the easier options in life and flood the welfare system (Martin, K. and Hart, R. 2011).
Adolescents living in an unsupportive home environment and children with early experiences of abuse and neglect, are at risk of experiencing further complex and challenging problems at this developmental stage such as sexual exploitation.
Neglect is also linked to mental health issues and is the primary factor of early attachment disorder. Children diagnosed with attachment will have experienced extreme insufficient care and will struggle to form positive relationships with adults. This is unfortunate as attachment is an illness that can be avoided yet is inherited by the child, due to the parents’ inability to meet the emotional need of the child by providing, comfort, stimulation and affection.
LAC children are most at risk of attachment and make up 46% of all disorders diagnosis in the UK (NSPCC). This is due to their parents adopting a neglectful parenting style in early childhood and the frequent uncertainty that can occur due to changes in foster care. LAC children are also at risk of disadvantage in education, most likely of a result of unstable home life, the risk of not settling and the anxiety at the possibility of having to change schools frequently. (Rahilly and Hendry, 2014)
Conclusion
Is the lack of resilience within our children today, down to the changing dynamics of family values or is it that values of any kind are no longer being instilled? Have we provided our youth with too many options and opportunities or is it that we apply too much pressure on children from an early age without preparing them for the struggles of life? Do we over expose them to certain aspects of life such as sex, social media and violence and are we not doing enough in the way of parenting to properly prepare and equip a child with the right emotional intelligence for developing into adulthood? These statements pose many different questions on how parents raise their children, how schools educate them and how the use of social media and early exposure to fictional ways of life have created an impression amongst children that is so far from the truth. As a result of these exposures, children struggle to cope with the reality of everyday life.
What is apparent in all of the above is that they are contributing factors to the increase in child poverty, homelessness, unemployment figures, numbers of domestic violence cases and number of deaths by suicide or drugs misuse. This in turn impacts the number of children/young people experiencing disadvantage, as failure to eradicate some of the issues mentioned above sees them pass from one generation to another and the cycle continues to grow.
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