Sex differences are defined by Hines as “any psychological or behavioural characteristic that differs on average for males and females of a particular species” (Hines 2004). Sex differences are often observed in children’s play behaviour. An example of this is differences in toy preferences. Girls often prefer dolls, doll furnishing and kitchen supplies whereas boys prefer construction and transportation toys (Connor and Serbin 1977). Differences can also be observed between playmate choice and in social play styles and activities (Hines and Kaufman 1994). These differences can be considered inevitable when they are unavoidable and cannot be prevented. It is likely that there is a biological basis as behaviour is grounded in biological processes. In which case sex differences could be inevitable. This is because the differences will occur regardless of social environment and cannot be prevented by changes in exposure to social factors. In contrast, a social basis for sex differences would include parental socialisation and exposure to gender stereotypes. These can be prevented through alterations in social environment meaning differences would not be inevitable. Evidence from studies and other research suggests that sex differences in children’s play behavior is grounded in biological factors that cannot be prevented. However, social factors can strongly influence play behavior, leading to sex differences. It can be argued that in the modern society exposure to these social factors is in fact unavoidable, adding to the inevitability of sex differences.
There is evidence to suggest a biological basis for sex differences in children’s play behaviour. If this is the case, it could be argued that sex differences are inevitable as they are unavoidable; regardless of the social environment a child is exposed to, they are likely to express gender typical behaviour. A link between testosterone levels and child play behaviour has been studied. This has involved comparing the behaviour of girls with congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) with that of girls who do not suffer from the condition. CAH is a genetic disorder that leads to high levels of prenatal androgen exposure (Hines 2004). Androgens are hormones associated with male characteristics (Sriram 2007). In a 1992 study girls with CAH were reported to have acted in a more masculine manner than unaffected girls. Girls with CAH spent significantly more time playing with boy’s toys and less time playing with girl’s toys than unaffected girls (Hines and Berenbaum 1992). This evidence could suggest that increased androgens lead to more masculine behaviour. If this is the case, sex differences in play behaviour are inevitable because there is a biological basis and cause. Biological factors will influence play behaviour regardless of social and environmental factors, meaning that it is inevitable that sex differences will occur.
However, it would be unethical for children to be randomly assigned to receive treatment of placebo (Hines and Berenbaum 1992). Therefore, other variables such as genetic factors could affect results. Some effort has been made to prevent this by using relatives as controls but this cannot remove all variables. As a result, it cannot be assumed that increased androgen causes more masculine play behaviour. This would mean that it is wrong to argue that sex differences in play behaviour are inevitable due to their basis in biological factors as a causal link between increased prenatal androgen and increased masculine play behaviour cannot be justified.
Additionally, the role of social factors could provide an explanation for the variation in children’s play behaviour between girls with and without CAH. In this case, sex differences in children’s play behaviour are not inevitable because they can be prevented by removing social influences. It has been suggested that differences in the behaviour of girls with and without CAH could be the result of variations in social expectations rather than hormone levels. If parents are aware of the child’s condition they may expect, and therefore be more likely to encourage, masculine behaviour. This has been demonstrated by Wong, Pasterski, Hindmarsh, Geffner and Hines (2012). Wong et al. found parents were found to encourage boy-typical toy play more in girls with CAH than unaffected girls. This could suggest that differences in play behaviour of girls with CAH and unaffected girls is the result of social factors, rather than differential hormone levels. If differences are due to social factors it is possible to prevent them through changes in social environment meaning they are not inevitable. For example, if parents didn’t encourage a particular type of toy play (girl-typical or boy-typical) the child may be less likely to choose toys associated with their gender.
Additionally evidence also suggests that sex differences in children’s play behaviour result from social factors. If social factors play a large role in causing sex differences in play behaviour, the differences are not inevitable. The social environment can be altered to avoid and prevent sex differences. In 1978, Fagot investigated the influence of a child’s sex on parental reactions to that child’s behaviour. It was found that parents reacted significantly more positively when a child engaged in behaviour associated with their own gender. Parents also reacted more negatively when the child engaged in behaviour associated with the gender that was not their own (Fagot 1978). Additionally, the “Baby X” studies, completed by Seavey, Katz and Zalk in 1975 show that strangers treat a child differently depending on whether they believe the child is a boy or a girl. The participants encouraged the baby to play with different toys depending on what they believed the gender to be (Seavey et al. 1975). The results of these two studies support one another- the evidence is converging. This would suggest that it is possible to come to a confident conclusion that infants are treated differently depending on their sex. Therefore, sex differences are avoidable by altering the social environment, more specifically, not encouraging or discouraging toy play based on gender.
Despite the strong evidence supporting the role of social factors in sex differences in children’s play behaviour, some research suggests children are not treated differently depending on their gender. A meta-analysis of 172 studies of parental socialisation of boys and girls found that more often than not, effect sizes were found to be insignificant and small. (Lytton and Romney 1991). If effect sizes are insignificant and small, differential socialisation cannot be the cause of sex differences in children’s play behaviour. This suggests there must be alternative explanations for the cause of sex differences.
Cognitive theories provide an alternative explanation for sex differences in children’s play behaviour. As children develop a cognitive awareness of their gender identity as a boy or girl, they begin to value and engage with particular activities and objects that are associated with that particular gender. They strive towards fulfilling their gender identity (Kohlberg 1966). This is reflected as children often imitate models of their own sex and prefer toys with their own sex label. Behaviour of boys showed an 87% consistency with models when all the models were male and just 54% consistency when half the models were male and half were female. Similar results were found for the behaviour of girls in the study (Perry and Bussey 1979- (imitation alive and well)). This suggests that upon understanding their own gender identity, children strive to fulfil it by imitating the behaviour of others around them of the same sex. Additionally, it has been found that children are more likely to choose a particular neutral item that they have been taught is for their own sex (Masters, Ford, Arend, Grotevant and Clark 1979). This evidence suggests that children prefer to play with items that have been labelled as for their own sex. This could be due to their desire to fulfil their gender identity. Cognitive causes of sex differences in children’s play behaviour could mean that the differences are inevitable. This is because they would suggest that there is an innate predisposition to value objects and activities associated with one’s own gender regardless of alternative factors, such as social environment.
However, gender typical toy preferences are often observed in children before any gender identity of the infant can be demonstrated. Sex differences in toy preferences can be observed by 12 months of age (Snow, Jacklin, Maccoby 1983). This would suggest that Kohlberg’s theory that sex differences occur due to awareness of gender identity is wrong because sex differences occur before gender identity exists. Additionally, evidence suggests that as exposure to stereotyping increases, sex typed behaviour also increases (Oppliger 2007). This correlation suggests that sex differences occur due to social factors, not cognitive factors. If the underlying cause of sex differences was cognitive factors, all infants would value and strive to fulfil their gender identity equally regardless of exposure to stereotypes. Therefore, social factors, such as exposure to gender stereotypes, are more likely to be the underlying cause of sex differences in children’s play behaviour. Therefore, differences are not inevitable as they occur due to varying social environments. The differences can be reduced and avoided by altering social environment, for example, limiting exposure to gender stereotypes.
However, in current, particularly western, society, gender stereotypes are so prevalent in that it could be argued that they are unavoidable. Therefore, sex differences in children’s play behaviour are inevitable because children are inevitably going to be exposed to gender stereotypes. These stereotypes are present in media, school and mass-produced goods. For example, in children’s books females are often presented passive, dependent and generally incapable whereas males were presented with the opposing characteristics (Peterson and Lach 2006). Additionally, gender stereotypes are found in television advertising. Boys are presented as more knowledgeable, aggressive and active than girls (Browne 2013). Gender stereotypes are present throughout modern life and culture meaning it is inevitable that children, particularly in western and industrialised societies, will be exposed to them. Therefore, sex differences in children’s play behaviour are still inevitable even when caused by social factors These social factors are so prevalent in society it is almost impossible to prevent these social factors from influencing infants.
Additionally, there is strong evidence to suggest an innate cause of sex differences in children’s play behaviour. This innate cause is likely to be biological differences. Sex differences in toy choice are not just found in humans; they can also be observed in nonhuman primates. For example, vervet monkeys show differential toy preferences based on sex. Male vervet monkeys had greater contact time with toys typically preferred by boys, such as vehicles. In contrast, female vervet monkeys had greater contact time with toys typically preferred by girls, such as dolls (Alexander and Hines 2002). These nonhuman primates cannot be exposed to the gender stereotypes that human infants are so inevitably exposed to. Therefore, it cannot be concluded that these gender stereotypes are the sole cause of sex differences. As a result, sex differences are also inevitable due to their basis in biological causes. These biological causes cannot be avoided or prevented.
In conclusion, a large selection of studies support biological, social and cognitive causes of sex differences in children’s play behaviour. Compelling evidence suggests that sex differences are caused by innate biological differences between male and female infants. However, the inevitability of these differences is significantly increased by exposure to social factors such as gender stereotypes. Infants are unavoidably going to be exposed to these biological and social factors making their influences on play behaviour inevitable. Innate biological differences are going to be present prenatally and since behaviour is grounded in biological processes, they will inevitably influence play behaviour. Additionally, social factors are so present in society that exposure to them is unavoidable. This means that children’s play behaviour will inevitable be affected by gender stereotypes found in media and everyday life. This combination of biological and social factors increases the inevitability of sex differences in children’s play behaviour as even if one type of factor could be avoided the other will still be present and influencing behaviour.