Do you want to be happy? Of course you do. Everyone does. Around the 3rd or 4th century BCE emerged a philosophy of life called Stoicism. Stoicism attempts to answer one of the fundamental question of life: what is the right way to live one’s life if one seeks happiness? Epictetus, a prominent philosopher of Stoicism, wrote his text The Handbook, detailing the ideas and ethics of Stoicism. From the Greeks to the Renaissance, Stoicism’s ideas have prevailed to this day and still find relevance in the 21st century.
Cosmic determinism is the metaphysical theory of Stoicism that explains how Stoics believe the world works. Cosmic determinism claims that everything that occurs, without exception, is caused by some previous event. All natural events are caused by prior natural events. This describes nature as consistent and perfectly organized, exhibiting a coherence, pattern, and predictability. Epictetus states the universe is arranged “well and justly” (31). Nature is perfect, and the cosmos is a complicated series of causality in which we live. Therefore, nothing is ultimately surprising or arbitrary. Essentially, because natural events are predetermined in the universe, similarly our positions in life in are predetermined, or fixed, as well.
From this metaphysical theory originates Stoic ethics, or how Stoics believe one should live one’s life. The fundamental teaching of Stoicism is accepting the external events that are outside your control and concentrating on the internal events that are within your control. Epictetus writes, “Some things are up to us and some are not up to us. Our opinions are up to us, and our impulses, desires, aversions — in short, whatever is our doing. Our bodies are not up to us, nor are our possessions, our reputations, or our public offices, or, that is, whatever is not our doing” (1). Epictetus says we can control what we think, feel, want, and avoid, but we cannot control what happens to our bodies, our belongings, our status, and our careers. In his actor in a play analogy, Epictetus illustrates the principles of Stoicism: “Remember you are an actor in a play…. If [the playwright] wants you to play a beggar, play even this part skillfully, or a cripple, or a public official, or a private citizen. What is yours is to play the part well. But to choose it belongs to someone else” (17). This analogy demonstrates the fundamental theory of Stoic ethics. Stoicism instructs individuals to accept their role, focus on their role, and control their internal events. To accept one’s role is to embrace it and understand it; to focus on one’s role is to keep it and try not to change it; to control one’s internal events is accomplished by controlling one’s judgment towards external events. Our judgment towards external events is our mindset or our response to them. Epictetus says, “What upsets people is not things themselves but their judgments about the things” (5). When we successfully control our judgment towards the external, neither illness nor death of a child nor loss of property will disconcert us. We cannot control externals like poverty, war, famine, or death, but we can control how we perceive them.
When we successfully accept what we cannot control, we advance in the direction towards the ideal human condition. Stoicism gives its followers an otherworldly type of strength and tranquility to control their judgments to any external. Epictetus writes, “Illness interferes with the body, not with one’s faculty of choice, unless that faculty of choice wishes it to” (9). With Stoicism we unlock a transcendent power to overcome all hardship like illness through self-discipline. Stoicism claims that one’s bodily illness does not conquer the power of one’s mind unless one allows it to. Epictetus advises, “At each thing that happens to you, remember to turn to yourself and ask what capacity you have for dealing with it” (10). Stoicism teaches self-control, endurance, humility, and patience through tribulation. These virtues are best exemplified in Epictetus’ banquet analogy:
Remember, you must behave as you do at a banquet. Something is passed around and comes to you: reach out your hand politely and take some. It goes by: do not hold it back. It has not arrived yet: do not stretch your desire out toward it, but wait until it comes to you … and you will be fit to share a banquet with the gods. But if when things are set in front of you, you do not take them but despise them, then you will not only share a banquet with the gods but also be a ruler along with them. (15)
In this analogy, Epictetus reveals the ultimate goal of Stoicism: mastering one’s desire and one’s mind. Epictetus commends the individual who not only gains discipline but also masters desire altogether. This individual who “has kept off all desire from himself” (48) and whose “impulses towards everything is diminished” (48) advances in the direction towards the ideal condition. Epictetus instructs, “Whenever you encounter some kind of apparent pleasure, be on guard, as in the case of other appearances, not to be carried away by it ….” (34). This spiritual discipline and denial advances the movement in the direction of the ideal condition for a human being, the ultimate goal of Stoic ethics, a total mastering of desire and controlling of one's mind.
Epictetus gives us general guidelines about our attitudes, our judgments, and how we should live our daily lives in order to reach this achievement of mastering desire and controlling the mind. He advises us to be humble, live ascetically, and refrain from distractions in the external. On being humble Epictetus says, “And when someone says to you that you know nothing and you are not hurt by it, then you know you are making a start at your task” (46) which Epictetus called achieving the ideal human condition. Epictetus also instructs us to “live cheaply” (46) but “not make a show of it,” (46) which incorporates his teachings about humility. An ascetic lifestyle establishes us on the path towards mastery of desire. The external contains many distractions for followers of Stoicism like focusing on their reputations. Regarding reputations Epictetus remarks, “But pay no attention to whatever anyone says about you, since that falls outside what is yours” (50). Our reputations are not up to us and are external, so we must disregard it and control our judgment. Above all, we should be consistent and true in our behaviors whether we are in public or in private as Epictetus states, “Set up right now a character and pattern for yourself which you will preserve when you are by yourself and when you are with people” (33).
Stoicism, a seemingly traditional teaching, has relevant application even in the modern, technology-driven 21st century. The 21st century has been ceaselessly scourged by a myriad of horrible atrocities such as terrorist attacks and mass shootings. In this day and age in which negativity seems prolific, Stoicism offers human beings a better way to react to the negativity we experience by controlling our judgments about them. In these dreadful times Stoicism teaches us how to let go and be peaceful about letting go. Epictetus gives an illustration of being on a voyage:
On a voyage when your boat has anchored, if you want to get fresh water you may pick up a small shellfish and a vegetable by the way, but you must keep your eyes fixed on the boat and look around frequently in case the captain calls. If he calls you must let all those other things go so that you will not be tied up and thrown on the ship like livestock. If the captain calls, let all those things go and run to the boat without turning back. (7)
Stoicism is being able to appreciate what you have, but also having the strength and tranquility to accept parting with what you love. “Never say about anything, ‘I have lost it,’ but instead, ‘I have given it back,’” Epictetus writes (11). To a world affected by terror and violence Epictetus would guide them saying, “Do not seek to have events happen as you want them to, but instead want them to happen as they do happen” (8) and “let death and exile and everything that is terrible appear before your eyes every day, especially death; and you will never have anything contemptible in your thoughts or crave anything excessively” (21). The first quote teaches us to align the things that are up to us, our thoughts, feelings, desires, and aversions, according to nature like Epictetus asserts: “but instead consider what you can do to bring your own faculty of choice into accord with nature” (30) instead of attempting to alter the externals. The second quote suggests that the existence of what is terrible and the ephemerality of what is good prevents us from having any hatred within our thoughts or any unrestrained desires. Epictetus reminds us to practice denial. This warning against loving life too much is practical application in this modern century.
Critics of Stoicism argue that Stoicism is an overly strict, unrealistic philosophy, excessively and unreasonably detached from emotion and submissive to nature. Critics inveigh against its principle of cosmic determinism and its over-submissiveness to nature which leads to quietism. Stoicism’s opponents state that Stoicism’s principles do not align with the mankind’s nature which makes practicing Stoicism unreasonable and basically impossible. Mankind’s nature is survivalist, retaliatory, and protective of its ego, yet Epictetus states, “Remember that what is insulting is not the person who abuses you or hits you, but the judgment about them that they are insulting” (20). Moreover, he charges us to “be gentle with the person who abuses [us]” (42). Here is where critics attack Stoicism’s submissive quality. Opponents believe instilling these passive, submissive attitudes would create an apathetic society and permit the leadership of tyrants and dictators and the prevalence of injustice and oppression.
I argue that the opposing argument is false. Stoicism is not an unfeeling, unreasonable philosophy with strict principles and hyper-submissive qualities. Stoicism is not emotionless; it exchanges negative emotions for Stoic rewards: love for denial, anger for freedom, and sadness for serenity. Stoicism says you can express emotion but control your judgment:
When you see someone weeping in grief at the departure of his child….do not hesitate, however, to sympathize with him verbally and even to moan with him if the occasion arises; but be careful not to moan inwardly. (16)
Determinism does not hinder humanity but liberates humanity. Understanding and accepting one’s station in life prevents one from experiencing the difficulties and frustrations from not focusing on one’s role. Determinism liberates humanity from frustration and gives enlightenment and peace. Stoicism does not generate a hyper-submissive, apathetic people but a fearless people. Stoics should be motivated to rebel against injustice and oppression since they have nothing to lose because they do not fear death or loss. Therefore, Stoics would be at the forefront of an insurgence against corrupt or tyrannical government. I bet you were almost convinced, were you not? Do not be afraid. Stoicism is not the death-knell to modern society. Conversely, it is a complex, liberating philosophy that is still relevant to the 21st century.
Stoicism is a philosophy of life that details the right way to live one’s life is one seeks happiness. Even though the philosophy claims to lead one to happiness, the particular methods and principles of Stoicism convey enduring much hardship, not experiencing or indulging extraordinary pleasures. Regardless, the philosophy’s ideas of accepting what one cannot control, controlling one’s judgment, living humbly, and mastering desire are ideas we can all benefit from studying. The ancient Stoicism philosophy is not so ancient after all, still securing its relevance in the 21st century.