The term ‘othering’, for the purposes of this analysis, is used to describe the process in which one group, or at times one individual, is distinguished from another group or individual. By doing so, the emphasis between the two entities is emphasized and enforced. This process is used to primarily assign or draw attention to the negative characteristics of one group, so that the other group may appear superior. An example of this process is frequently employed in the relations between different races, where one group distinguishes them from the other so that they can wield more power. This paper will focus on the level at which the process of “othering” is essential for developing a stable society, using Machiavelli’s teachings to support this claim.
A term that has become infamous to Machiavelli’s writings is the term “virtu”, and for the purpose of this paper is important to define. Machiavelli does not so much emphasize the definition of this term in Discourses on Livy, but he does so in The Prince. Originally, Machiavelli uses this word to refer to character of a Prince, or the leader of a state. This word describes the character of a leader; a leader who has virtú is both ethical in the traditional definition of the word, but also has the qualities of strength, ability and skill. The Prince who has such virtú is the only person who can create the institutions of the state, which make up the foundation of the republic. The details of the virtú of a Prince is not important here, but the concept of virtú for private citizens is. Just as the Prince who has virtú is the best to create the state, the people in a republic must have virtú to uphold and protect those institutions.
The third term that is central to the Discourses is “liberty”. Machiavelli refers to both ‘liberty’ and ‘freedom’ in Discourses, using ‘freedom’ to refer to external independence, where rule of the state is free from any form of interference by foreign bodies. ‘Liberty’ refers to the autonomous, self-sufficient nature of the state, resting on the laws and customs that govern the people. Machiavelli couples this character of ‘liberty’ with that of ‘equality’; he frequently emphasizes an equality in property and a collective concern for the common good. The equality of personal rights and freedom of speech are included in Machiavelli’s definition and contribute to the liberty of the people.
The last term that must be defined is “stable society”. Various theorists and philosophers have differing views on what this term means, but with respect to Discourses on Livy, this term is in reference to the components of a strong, enduring and self-governed state. Detailed throughout Discourses, is Machiavelli’s desire for a Republican political system, or at best and most realistic, a mixed form of government that would emphasize the external independence of the state, while ensuring there was liberty internally. The complexities of Machiavelli’s writings will be explored later on in the paper, but for the purpose of this definition, Machiavelli’s ideal republic is one that balanced tensions between groups within the state, to maintain an equilibrium of sorts, and ensuring domestic and external stability. To summarize the key factors of Machiavelli’s “stable society”, liberty, the common good and self-governance were of the utmost importance in ensuring the longevity of this state; these characteristics were brought about by good laws, strong civic military, leadership and religion. To return to the definition of virtú, a stable society is one where the people are willing to engage in this civic virtú, which in turn contributes to the greatness of the republic, and the liberty of the people.
It is first imperative that one recognizes that while The Prince was created as a handbook for rulers, Machiavelli wrote Discourses on Livy as a guide for the citizen body, in which he asserts the superiority of a republican government, as well as the growth and maintenance of this state. His emphasis on freedom of the community and the preservation of society remain paramount and act as the foundation for each component of his ideal state. There are three main ideas that will be focused on in this paper, all of which are employed with the goal of asserting the claim that the process of othering would be to the detriment of a state. These three ideas are: the opportunity for virtú to manifest, the pursuit of the common good, and the maintenance of liberty.
Livy’s work was a recount of the history of Rome, where he asserted the growth of the empire to, using Machiavelli’s term, fortuna. Machiavelli disagreed with this, asserting that the success of the Roman empire lay in its virtú, upheld by the political institutions that were in place; he does not deny good fortune of the Romans, but emphasizes that it was a by-product of the “special ability” of the rulers. This virtuous mode of conduct is in reference to the political institutions that were set in place, and allowed virtú to manifest itself. The political institutions of the state are good laws, a strong citizen military and virtuous leadership, with some mention made of religion. If the materials used to build these institutions is, or becomes, at all corrupt, the laws of the city will be of no benefit; this is where virtuous character is so important. Even though Machiavelli saw man’s inherent nature as selfish and evil, the signing of the social contract through the laws, and if a state has good moral conduct in their institutions, the citizens will act virtuously. This emphasis on virtú is one of the first instances we see the value Machiavelli places on unity; it is only when the citizen community subscribes to these laws that virtú can arise, and overcome fortuna. Citizens have to ignore their propensity for self-interest in order to protect the polity, and will eventually be rewarded with their liberty.
Going against their egotistical nature, citizens prioritize the common good, a key component of Machiavelli’s stable society. Machiavelli does not deny the need for concentrated power in the state, hence the desire for a popular government. The central and stable concentration of power comes from unity in the nation, ensuring that there is internal strength of the state. Once this internal power is secured, national and external strength will be enhanced, because internal unity acts as the necessary precondition for the desire to protect the nation from external threats. It is here that one must focus on the internal tensions that naturally arise between ‘the people’ and ‘the upper class’, as Machiavelli describes. The clashes between these two groups, which Machiavelli sometimes describes as between the ‘senate’, or the leaders with virtú, and the people, are where much of the laws arise from, the very laws that lead to liberty. The desire for political power by both groups led to disturbances; eventually, an equilibrium was reached when the men realized that there was a necessity for order in the city. Machiavelli values these tensions, explaining that a republic has to see risk and ruin before it can achieve total perfection. It is important to recognize that these clashes are inevitable, and the growth that is consequent leads towards liberty, rather than a tyrannical seize of power where one group is ‘othered’. It is the pursuit of the common good that both leads to virtuous institutions and stability.
The last component is the maintenance of liberty; this appears to be a broad idea and integrates many of the smaller parts of society. One such factor is governing the relations mentioned above between the senate and the people. Machiavelli writes that the stability of a republic is reliant on the reputation of its citizens; the citizens must have and use the opportunities to act in favour of the common good, and when they do so, they will be rewarded with high honours instituted by the city. Any citizens who pursue reputation through private means, which includes favours that only benefit one other private citizen, will be punished. This will encourage the citizens to act in a way that they earn a good reputation, which contributes to the overall success of the city and to its liberty. The institution and good laws that govern the city will be used to control those who attempt to gain power or private benefits. Machiavelli singles out the leaders of the city as the ones who may act in this corrupt manner, in an attempt to wield more power; rather, he recommends that the people should act as the guardians of liberty. The people won’t ever choose to violate their liberty because it ensures their security from oppression, and the desire for this security will be more popular than the desire for power. The civic guardianship of liberty would manifest itself in two ways, one that ensures freedom and the other that allows for security. The men that have good conduct and act for the common good will be awarded with election to office. For the others whose only desire is to live safely, and as a mechanism of preventing corruption, laws will be set in place that apply to both those in power and to the public. The liberty of the people is maintained by selecting the magistrates, as the people are much harder to persuade than a prince with respect to choosing a corrupted person. Therefore, liberty is maintained and guarded by the people through preservation of institutions and laws, and the elections of their leaders.
To answer the question of the role of “othering” in developing a strong state, we must return to the aforementioned definition of the term. The process of “othering” is where one group, often the group with more power, attempts to differentiate and distance themselves from another group, emphasizing the disparities between the two. In doing so, the former group is painted in a positive light, while the other is seen negatively and is likely destroyed. It is important to recognize that “othering” is much more than recognizing two clashing groups; it is the intentional act of denigrating one group with the intention of being rid of it. Doing so can involve fraudulent means and does not often lead to the success of the whole.
In Discourses, Machiavelli frequently writes of the clashes between the senate and the people, but looks at these disagreements favourably because when dealt with properly through virtuous institutions, these conflicts lead to a positive outcome for both groups. The existence of the two groups is maintained and liberty is the end result. In fact, Machiavelli specifically writes that the purpose of the laws of the state are to ensure that any corrupt ideas or actions motivated by ego are not possible, and that the destruction of the opposite group in these clashes is to be avoided. Rather, the clash of these groups and the following laws that arise from compromises between each group allow for the preservation of the needs of both groups. The domestic stability of a state and peace internally is a necessary condition for the strength that is required to externally defend the state. In the same vein, total autonomy and freedom from foreign guidance ensures security for the people within the state, and security allows for marriages, a growing population, and wealth. The people who live in a free society are able to enjoy these rewards and in turn can progress towards their liberty with enhanced moral conduct. The interdependence between internal rule and external autonomy is why “othering” can be so damaging. If there is irreconcilable conflict within the state and the citizens are no longer acting with good reputation, Machiavelli says that even if the laws are good, the republic will not last.
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