% of Grade: 25
Word Limit: 1500 (including footnotes and bibliography)
Topic: What is meant by the term social policy? What are some of the main influences on social policy in a New Zealand context?
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Social policy is ‘…concerned with the ways in which well-being is influenced by the distribution of opportunities and resources available in society.’ (Cheyne, C. et al). Centered around both government action and inaction, social policy also involves the behaviour of other actors including; interactions and transactions in the market and the business and private sectors, the voluntary sector, public sector, and non-government organisations. Due to the nature of social policy, this redistribution of opportunity and resource will advantage and disadvantage varying groups and individuals. Diversity of interests disallows the belief that social policy always enhances the wellbeing for all people, due to the various and conflicting impacts on different groups within the population.
Well-being is the primary goal of social policy and can be defined in a number of ways, with the exact implications of the term differentiating between various groups and individuals. A broad overview of the term, from a governmental standpoint, is preserving the different types of capital valued in society; natural, economic, human, and social. However, the traditional goals and objectives of social policy, and the key aspects of wellbeing are; that people’s needs are met, that people are resilient and not vulnerable in the face of risk, that society is just, that citizenship rights are acknowledged, that equality is achieved, and that individuals and groups have freedom to develop. These goals are widely recognised as the core concerns of social policy. However, some people will give emphasis to one goal over another, and different groups have different ways of viewing and achieving each goal.
In New Zealand, there have been many influences on the creation of social policy. From theoretical frameworks to constitutional changes, there have been key events and time periods over the years that have shaped New Zealand’s social policy, and subsequently shaped the society we live in today. These main influences are; the Treaty of Waitangi, social democracy, neoliberalism, and mixed member proportional electoral system. Although there are other important influences on social policy, with almost all decisions and actions having influences on social policy, these are the key influences that have the most impact. It is also important to note that our British heritage sets the framework for our unique New Zealand approach to social policy, with us inheriting a decidedly English legal and governmental system.
The Treaty of Waitangi is the founding constitutional document of New Zealand, and as such, is one of the most notable influences on New Zealand social policy. The impact of the Treaty on social policy has fluctuated, correlating with its amount of legal recognition. For many years after the signing, little weight was given to the Treaty, evidenced by cases such as Wi Parata 1877, which subsided the document as a ‘simple nullity.’ Although the Treaty is still not legally enforceable, the principles of the Treaty have increasingly played a role in our society and have had increased influence on social policy.
The signing of the Treaty on February 6th 1840 between Maori Chiefs and the Crown symbolised the birth of a bicultural nation, and the merging of English traditions and Maori tikanga. Although social policy has been traditionally Eurocentric, there has been an increasing acknowledgement of tangata whenua and indigenous Maori beliefs and values in policy creation. In particular, a recognition that Maori, in general, see wellbeing as a collective matter, with an emphasis on harmony between the spiritual and material worlds.
After the landmark court decision in New Zealand Maori Council v Attorney General 1987, the influence of the Treaty on social policy has been exacerbated. The case was concerned with the effects of section nine of the State-Owned Enterprises Act 1986, and it was declared that government action must accord with the principles of the Treaty. President of the Court of Appeal, Robin Cooke stated, “those principles required the Pakeha and Maori treaty partners to act towards each other reasonably and with the utmost good faith.” Since this judgement, there has been recognition of the need to include Maori beliefs and values, as well as the principles of the Treaty of Waitangi in our social policy. These principles include; a partnership of acting reasonably and in good faith towards each-other, active protection of the Maori people by the Crown and the recognition of Maori rangatiratanga over Maori land and culture.
Two acts that clearly illustrate the influence of the Treaty of Waitangi on social policy are the Resource Management Act 1991 and Te Ture Whenua Maori Act 1993.
The RMA regulates the use of natural and physical resources in New Zealand, and states that any action taken under the Act must be in accordance with Treaty principles. Section 8 of the RMA contains a provision stating, “…in achieving the purpose of this Act, all persons exercising functions and powers under it, in relation to managing the use, development, and protection of natural and physical resources, shall take into account the principles of the Treaty of Waitangi.” Critics believe the inclusion of s8 impedes economic development, but this statutory provision allows Maori influence on social policy – playing an increased role in the regulation of the NZ environment.
Te Ture Whenua Maori Act 1993 was a statute with the object of helping Maori retain land. Instead of attempting to transform communal land into individual title, Maori customary land ownership was strengthened. This shows how Maori beliefs and values, particularly collective wellbeing and ownership recognised by the Treaty, influence social policy. The Act iterates; “…it is desirable that the spirit of the exchange of kawanatanga for the protection of rangitaranga embodied in the Treaty of Waitangi be reaffirmed: And whereas it is desirable to recognise that land is a taonga tuku iho of special significance to Maori people and, for that reason, to promote the retention of that land in the hands of its owners, their whanau, and their hapu.” Te Ture Whenua Maori Act is another key example of how the Treaty of Waitangi has influenced New Zealand social policy, by…
Ultimately, the Treaty of Waitangi recognises Maori culture as central in New Zealand, and as such that values and principles of our indigenous people must be taken into account in social policy. This viewpoint is particularly evident in the 1970s and 1980s, with Maori reasserting themselves as a group within the New Zealand legal system, and the Treaty of Waitangi gaining formal recognition
The political ideology known as traditional social democracy is one of the key influencers in social policy, in a New Zealand context. These theories and beliefs pushed us to the ‘left’ politically, and represent an emphasis on egalitarianism and collectivism.
The policy of the first Labour government, particularly the invention of the welfare state clearly indicates the influence of traditional social democracy on social policy. Elected towards the end of the Great depression in 1935, the first Labour government of New Zealand was responsible for the realisation of a wide range of progre
ssive social reforms. Setting the tone of New Zealand’s econom
ic and welfare policies until the 1980s, Labour established; a comprehensive ‘cradle to grave’ welfare state, a system of Keynesian economic management, and high levels of state intervention.
This egalitarian mindset, at the heart of the policy endeavours, is illustrated by the Social Security Act of 1938. This was the effective establishment of New Zealand as a welfare state. The Act was the most important piece of legislation passed by the government, and includes important provisions such as; an old-age pension, a national superannuation scheme, and a universal healthcare system. There were also increased allowances for the unemployed, disabled, and families. The income for this state spending was provided by increasing the income tax on the higher income brackets. Redistributing income, that is the result of unequal market outcomes, is a focal point of the Act, and resonates strongly with
Other actions taken by the labour government include gifting the unemployed a christmas bonus, introducing a guaranteed price for dairy owners, as well as a minimum wage for workers.
Furthering the socially democratic belief in state intervention, the Labour government also nationalised the reserve bank, introduced a state-owned broadcasting system, as well as a state-owned housing scheme. Moreover, compulsory arbitration and unionism was reinstated, and the 40 hour work week implemented.
Social democracy is a poignant influence on the social policy construction of the 1930s, particularly in 1938, with the introduction of social security – state funded income maintenance and welfare services, which provided protection from the vagaries of the free market.
The influence of the classical theory of neoliberalism on New Zealand’s social policy was dramatic, particularly through the 1980s and 1990s. In 1991 there was the creation of a new residual welfare system, reformed by the free market. The foundation of neoliberalism is a focus on individualism. There is substantial questioning of the role of the state to meet people’s needs, with a focus on the market, the private sector, and individual responsibility. Neoliberals critique the welfare state, stating that it encourages ‘welfare dependency,’ and instead argue for unfettered markets and a constrained role for the government as the key to generating wealth and resource required for wellbeing.
Since 1984, and the election of the fourth Labour government, there was significant changes in social and economic policy, reshaping the welfare state. The economic reforms enacted were known as ‘rogernomics’, after Finance Minister Roger Douglas. ‘Between 1984 and 1993, New Zealand underwent radical economic reform, moving from what had probably been the most protected, regulated and state-dominated system of any capitalist democracy to an extreme position at the open, competitive, free-market end of the spectrum.’ The fourth labour government pursued liberalism for individuals and markets.
The economic policy included the Commerce Act 1986 and the State Owned Enterprises Act 1986. These statutes; promote competition within the market and corporatised government departments and agencies, respectively. These policies of deregulation, promotion of the state market, and mitigation of state intervention are deeply rooted in neoliberalism.
Other social policy included the Homosexual Law Reform Act 1986, which decriminalised homosexuality, effectively increasing personal freedom and liberty – another key value of neoliberalists.
Further reflecting neoliberal beliefs is the fourth National Government of 1990, who’s social policy further evidences the recent influence of neoliberalism on New Zealand social policy.
The most notable contribution of the fourth National government is the Employment Contracts Act 1991, which deregulated employment relations and limited trade unions.
During this time period, National cut social benefits and dismantle the welfare state set up by the 1930’s Labour government. Emphasising individual responsibility through social policy evidences the neoliberal influences on National during this time period. User pays proliferated, public services were rationalise, subsidies were removed and student fees were introduced. Income and company tax was also reduced, exhibiting neoliberal tendencies.
Further reduction in state intervention is shown by the sale of many state owned assets and enterprises, as well as the encouragement of the private sector, and the automation of the reserve bank over inflation. Market is also seen as key, through heavy deregulating the market place.
Neoliberalism was at its peak during the 1980s and the 1990s, and clearly shaped the direction of social policy in New Zealand.
One of the most recent constitutional changes that has influenced social policy in New Zealand is the establishment of a mixed member proportional electoral system.
The shift to the left in the 1930s, and the shift the right in the 1980s/90s, culminated in a recognition of the cultural pragamistic that has always existed in NZ; that has drawn us closer to the centre, through MMP, and also made way for minority voices.
In 1993, New Zealanders voted to change from a traditional westminster style ‘first past the post’ electoral system, to a more representative ‘mixed member proportional’ system. Since the first MMP election of 1996, minor parties have had more influence on outcomes of policy. Thus, there is a significant shift in policy to the centre, with the majority government’s seeking out middle ground, and with extremist positions becoming less politically viable. With minority governments and a need for coalitions, it is considerably more difficult to ‘ram through’ policies without considerable negotiation and consideration.
Political structure has a clear influence on social policy as, previously under first past the post (FPP), one party had effective control over the executive and the legislature, which allowed bills such as (INSERT BILL HERE) to be passed with ease. Now, under MMP, there has to be agreement amongst multiple parties. This means that some of the more controversial bills have struggled transforming into legislation (INSERT BILL HERE).
MMP has also resulted in a larger number of women and minority ethnic groups being represented, which has an impact on social policy. Acts such as (INSERT BILL HERE) represent the increased voice of women in parliament since the electoral shift.
Ultimately, the MMP system has drawn New Zealand closer to the centre – politically. This is evidenced by the blurred lines between the National and Labour parties. Gone are the days of Labour nationalising everything, and then National privatising everything – with the constant reversion of policy with every change in government. Through MMP, New Zealand has become more focused on its vision of wellbeing, and as such, more consistent with its social policy implementation and direction,
References: for personal use:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rogernomics
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fourth_Labour_Government_of_New_Zealand
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Labour_Government_of_New_Zealand
http://www.nzherald.co.nz/nz/news/article.cfm?c_id=1&objectid=11921973
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
Fourth_National_Government_of_New_Zealand
how has mmp affected socialy policy
https://
en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?search=Employment+Contracts+Act+1991&title=Special:Search&fulltext=1&searchToken=3ljwjayj6o3f1m902r2u3y403
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_Security_Act_1938