Module PS3031 – Conceptual Issues and Theoretical Perspectives
What is a human?
Twentieth-century psychoanalyst Erich Fromm defined humans as, “the only animal for whom his own existence is a problem which he has to solve” (Fromm, 1947). This “problem” has been constantly defined or reinterpreted from biological, philosophical, evolutionary, and sociological perspectives. However, the key factor linking these varying viewpoints together is the presence of a linguistic system that allows us to even form these differing perspectives. This essay will suggest that the complexity that exists within our language—our syntax, grammar, design, symbolism, and semantics—divides and elevates the human species from non-human animals (NHA).
Human language is perhaps one of the most distinctive behavioral adaptations on the planet as it has differentiated itself from the idea of simple communication between organisms to a prerequisite for the development of human culture. There is a biological basis to the complexity of human language—the Forkhead box protein P2 gene (FOXP2) in humans contributes to the ability of fine control of the larynx and mouth needed for articulate speech production (Enard et al., 2002). FOXP2 has been shown to regulate language-like behaviors in birds, mice, and chimpanzees. These vocalizations aid in providing a communicative structure to social groups, such as identifying members, facilitating group movement, or signaling danger, but lack grammatical or syntactic complexity. When human and chimpanzee lineages diverged 4.6-6.2 million years ago, the substitution of two amino acid changes in humans, from those in NHA, appears to contribute to the human ability of normal spoken language (Enard et al., 2002).
Linguist Noam Chomsky built upon this idea of a contributing genetic factor to human language, suggesting “that our language is the result of the unfolding of a genetically determined program,” which begins with an innate ability to understand grammatical structures, coined as “Universal Grammar” (Deacon, 1997). Chomsky suggests that “language acquisition devices” in developing brains aid children in navigating subject-object rules, appropriate syntax, and pragmatic semantics of all human languages. The appeal in the idea of Chomsky’s language “organ” is that it eliminates the discontinuity between human and NHA communication styles, offering a single-step evolutionary account for the failure of other species in acquiring language—an ultimate discrepancy in separating humans from NHA. While parallels can be made between certain facets of linguistics between humans and NHA, such as learned dialects of birdsong with differing human vernaculars, these parallels exhibit a superficial resemblance to language learning in NHA and lack the coordinated rules that exist within the human language system—the syntax, grammar, design, symbolism, and semantics—that drive our existence forward (Deacon, 1997).
The ability to ask the question “what is a human?” is only possible due to our harness on the complexity of language, a grip so developed that we can ask the question of our existence to ourselves. It is hard to imagine a bird reflecting on its inherent “birdness,” but our ability to question our existence drives our understanding of humanness, therefore suggesting that language is the key differentiating factor between humans and NHA.
Beyond the mere ability to communicate, human language encompasses the capability for abstract thought, the foundation of all philosophical, scientific, and artistic endeavors. This abstract thinking allows humans to ponder concepts such as time, existence, morality, and the universe—thoughts that are inextricably linked to our linguistic capabilities. The capacity for such reflection and the subsequent cultural evolution it engenders highlights the profound impact of language on human development.
Language also facilitates the construction and perpetuation of complex societies. Through the shared understanding of symbols and meanings, humans can convey intricate social structures, legal systems, and cultural norms. This shared symbolic universe enables cooperation on a scale unmatched by any other species, allowing for the development of civilizations and technological advancements. The written word, a further evolution of language, preserves knowledge across generations, ensuring the continuity and growth of human culture.
Moreover, the role of language in shaping identity and self-awareness cannot be understated. The narratives we construct about ourselves and our place in the world are deeply rooted in linguistic expression. These narratives help to form our personal and collective identities, guiding our actions and interactions within the broader social context. The ability to articulate one’s thoughts, desires, and experiences fosters a deeper understanding of oneself and others, facilitating empathy and social cohesion.
From a sociological perspective, language is a tool for socialization, through which cultural values and norms are transmitted. It is through language that individuals learn their roles within a society and internalize the expectations of their community. This process of socialization is crucial for the functioning of any social group, as it ensures the perpetuation of cultural practices and social order.
In addition to its cognitive and social functions, language has a profound impact on our emotional lives. It allows us to articulate and process our emotions, facilitating emotional regulation and interpersonal communication. The ability to express feelings through language is essential for mental health and well-being, as it provides an outlet for emotional experiences and fosters connections with others.
The evolution of language has also been instrumental in human adaptation to various environments. The ability to communicate complex ideas and strategies has enabled humans to survive and thrive in diverse habitats. Language allows for the transmission of survival skills, such as hunting techniques and agricultural practices, from one generation to the next. This transfer of knowledge has been crucial in the human species’ ability to adapt to changing environments and challenges.
Furthermore, the interdisciplinary nature of language studies, encompassing fields such as linguistics, psychology, anthropology, and neuroscience, underscores its significance in understanding the human condition. Research in these areas continues to reveal the intricacies of language acquisition, processing, and use, shedding light on the fundamental aspects of what it means to be human.
In conclusion, the complexity of human language—encompassing syntax, grammar, design, symbolism, and semantics—serves as a cornerstone of what defines us as human beings. It differentiates us from non-human animals and is integral to our capacity for abstract thought, cultural development, social organization, identity formation, emotional expression, and adaptation. The ability to ask “what is a human?” and to seek answers through language highlights the profound connection between linguistic capability and human existence. As we continue to explore the depths of language and its impact on our lives, we gain a deeper understanding of ourselves and our place in the world.
References
- Deacon, T. W. (1997). The Symbolic Species: The Co-Evolution of Language and the Brain. WW Norton & Company.
- Enard, W., Przeworski, M., Fisher, S. E., Lai, C. S., Wiebe, V., Kitano, T., & Pääbo, S. (2002). Molecular evolution of FOXP2, a gene involved in speech and language. Nature, 418(6900), 869.
- Fromm, E. (1947). Man for Himself: An Inquiry Into the Psychology of Ethics. Holt, Rinehart and Winston.