CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction
The necessity of ethical responsibility in leadership for good governance is inevitable. Corruption is unethical and illegal practice that hinders the development of good governance both in public and private institutions. The widespread of corruption in local government authorities motivates the need of conducting an empirical study. This study was based on the investigation on the citizens’ perspectives on ethical leadership for good governance in Kinondoni Municipality, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania as the area of study. In the context of ethical leadership for good governance, the citizens’ perspectives covered three areas of social service delivery including land services, health services and education services. This chapter includes the background to the study, a statement of the research problem, objectives of the study and the significance of the study. Other aspects include the definition of key concepts and lastly the limitations encountered during the study.
1.2 Background of the Research Problem
The issue of ethical responsibility is as long as humankind itself. Whenever human being is, there is always the question what is and ought to be. The most primitive people developed their conceptions of what is good and what is bad, what is not to be done, and what is proper in different situations (Kropotkin, 1922:54). More than four centuries Before Common Error (B.C.) there appeared sophists and amoralists who did not recognize the obligatory nature of moral principles. According to sophists, “good” and “evil” are relative (Kropotkin, 1922:56). On the other hand, ethics was advocated by the greatest Greek Philosophers: Socrates, Plato and Aristotle. The creator of ethics as a study of morality was Greek Philosopher Socrates (470- 399 B.C.) who used ethics to define the terms of human virtues (Bozovic, 2007:173).
During the ancient time the question of ethics was highlighted by Socrates who responded to the sophistic manipulative tendency of truth who used their intellectual skills to make the wrong appear right and right appear wrong. It is Socrates through his dialectical method who manages to make a difference between what is good and what is bad. Socrates came out against the Sophists in the name of true knowledge (Kropotkin, 1922:57). According to Socrates, the most important personal values are righteousness, courage, honesty, tolerance, goodness, sincerity and fairness (Bozovic, 2007:173). Socrates believed that, virtue can be taught, i.e. that virtue is knowledge. A man must know what is good in order to do good (Bozovic, 2007:174). This study was motivated by the very fact that, the society is affected by ethical ambiguity and ethical failures by some leaders who actually do not know what they are doing and what to do, for example, incompetent leaders or they chose not to do what they are supposed to do, for instance corrupt leaders. Up to date, some public leaders act like sophists by using their intellectual skills and positions to make right appear wrong and wrong appear right. Some of leaders act with moral intentions but due to their incompetency, they create unethical outcomes. Price (2000) cited in Ciulla (2005:162) argued that the moral failures of leaders are not always intentional but sometimes they are cognitive and sometimes they are normative. Cognitive account means that leaders fail to take up their ethical responsibility because of two reasons. First, they do not understand the content and the scope of that morality. On the content of morality, leaders do not know how to behave, act and restrict on themselves. On the scope of morality, leaders mistake the scope. For example, some leaders may go to workplace late always without any grave reasons thinking that people are obliged to wait for the leader. Second, normative account means that the leaders know how to behave ethically. Nevertheless, due to their will and desire on self-interests they choose not to do their duties hence ethical responsibility failure. They are not ready to sacrifice their immediate self-interests for the common good. For example in 1978, the late Dictator Idd Amin Dada of Uganda invaded Tanzania with the intention to annex Kagera region as part of Uganda. Sophistic manipulative takes place until today to make the good appear bad and bad appear good. It means that, some public leaders intentionally break the code of ethics of particular society or organization for their own self-interests regardless the society and the truth.
From the observations in daily life there has been some of local government leaders’ involvement into wrong actions particularly corruption as one among the big issues in governance among others. As a result, responsiveness and accountability that are one of the elements of democratic and good governance is missing. The ethical responsibility of serving all people within a reasonable time-frame becomes an ethical issue in local government authorities. Since the 1998 Local Government Reform, there came a large number of cases of corrupt behavior among the officers and members of local government authorities. Consequently, there has been much speculation regarding the causes of this increase and the integrity of the public service generally. However, there has been relatively little research of some of the wider ethical issues present in public service. The findings on ethical leadership and ethical [good] governance show to some extent that, the citizens’ perspectives have been neglected in the discourse of administrative ethics (Salminen 2010: v &vii). The views of citizens are highly needed as criteria for ethical governance to develop. The leadership that is not grounded in ethics lacks the capacity for achieving good governance. Northouse (2007:346) noted that ethics are central to leadership and stated, “Leaders help and establish and reinforce organizational values”. Ethics is about considering possible actions and therefore possible consequences while morality is about behaving according to a set of pre-agreed rules. There are three points to consider on ethical leadership. What it is? Why it is crucial? And how to practice it? In a simple way, ethical leadership is about knowing and doing what is right. When a leader is knowledgeable on what is right, the right thing should be done. Contrary to that is known as volition since he or she wills and desires to act unethically. On the other hand, being ignorant on the content and scope of the ethics is called cognitive. However, both the volition and cognitive can lead to the ethical failure in leadership. Ethical leadership consists of two elements. First, ethical leaders have to act and make decisions basing on ethics of leadership. Second, ethical leaders have to lead their followers ethically in the way they treat them in all aspects of human being. Ethical leadership must be both visible and invisible. The visible part relies on how a leader works and treats others in actions and inactions. The invisible part of ethical leadership includes the mindset, leaders’ character and principle on which a leader draws decision both openly as well as secretly(http://ctb.ku.edu/en/table-of-contents/leadership/leadership-ideas/ethical-leadership/main).
The components of ethical leadership to mention a few include; putting aside the ego and self-interests for the common interests, competency for effectiveness and efficiency and accepting responsibility as well as accountability. Ciulla (2005:163) remarked that both deontological and teleological theories needed to account for the ethics of leaders. A good leader has to be ethical and effective. A leader has to act according to duty and with some notion of the greatest good in mind. Why should leaders be ethical? Leaders ought to be ethical; first, leaders are supposed to be role models for the community and an organization. Socrates taught that virtue is not a revelation from the gods but a rational innate knowledge of what is truly good and of what makes man capable of living without oppressing others but treating them justly; makes him capable of serving society; and not himself alone. Without this, society is inconceivable (Kropotkin, 1922:57). In Northouse (2007:346) remarked that the leader’s influence has significant impact on their followers’ lives. He noted that such influence has a great ethical burden and responsibility. Second, ethical leadership builds trust to the people. It is much easier for an ethical leader to be followed by his or her followers rather than unethical leader who uses force and intimidation. Third, ethical leadership provides credibility and respect both for the leader and the community or an organization. For instance, Mwalimu Julius Kambarage Nyerere, the first President of Tanzania was highly respected within and without the nation. It was due to his integrity, he was both ethical leader and moral leader throughout his life. The ethical leadership should be exercised all the time by anyone in the position of leadership. Whether the leader is formal or informal, international or not international should act on basis of ethics of leadership. An emphasis is put on ethical leadership because any action or inaction will affect human being and his or her surroundings that may endanger his or her life(http://ctb.ku.edu/en/table-of-contents/leadership/leadership-ideas/ethical-leadership/main).
The importance of ethics of leadership aims at both the action of leading and what actually leaders do, what leaders should be like and their responsibilities and relationships with followers. It seems to be a general concern that the world at large is becoming less aware about the importance of ethical concerns. United Nations Development Program (UNDP, 2001:1) observed that there is an urgent need for ethical practices in public services. According to Kernaghan &Langlord (1990:140), unethical behavior could lead to ineffective administration, poor governance and unsatisfactory service delivery. The attributes of bad or poor governance includes the lack of quality essential services, the lack of public infrastructures, poor management of resources, (Hoseah, 2014:2) corruption, poverty, environmental problems and undemocratic governance. The true measure of good governance relies on its ability to deliver development based on realizing people’s human rights. It entails transparency, accountability, participation, and responsiveness to the needs of the poor, marginalized and underrepresented groups. Among other major reasons for coups in many Sub Sahara African countries such as Nigeria, Uganda and Egypt was the lack of good governance by public leaders. According to Association of chartered Certified Accountants (ACCA, 2012:4) report on Leadership and Governance in Africa shows that attitudes and behaviors present the greatest barriers to improving ethical and good governance practices in the African region. Once the first President of Tanzania, Mwalimu Julius Nyerere remarked that in order to develop four things are required; good governance, good leadership, people and land. Among others, the big issue in Africa and particularly Tanzania is the deficiency on moral integrity and ethical leadership in governance.
The system of Local Government in Tanzania is engulfed in a leadership crisis. According to Ngware (2005:2), the accountability of elected and appointed leaders remains a glaring weakness of the system although it constitutes one of the key and strategic governance framework for implementation and sustenance of the project management at ward and village level. It is due to unethical practices and behavior of public officials in Local Government Councils that led to leadership crisis. All the pillars of the state are in one way or another affected by the pandemic and cancerous problem [corruption] Ngware, 2005:5). The issue of corruption is a big problem in Tanzania and in Sub Saharan African countries. However, in both countries, corruption can be said to be linked with a crisis of the state, which has produced a culture of corruption with a tendency to permanence (Seppanen and Virtanen 2008:40). Their unethical conduct and actions have created a leadership crisis that has unfavorably affected the quality of governance at the Local Government level. The inability of public officials to provide good governance has constituted a major barrier to socioeconomic development in Tanzania.
The 1998 Local Government Reform, which culminated into the present Local Government system in Tanzania aimed to good governance and improved service. According to Ngware (2005:7), one of the major objectives of Local Government Reform Programme was to facilitate Local Government Authorities to enable them deliver sufficient, reliable, predictable and quality services to majority of citizens. However, those in the wheel of Local Government administration have failed to live up to their ethical responsibilities. The reason for these failures is the lack of ethical and effective government leadership at a grassroots levels and, in fact, at all levels of government. The lack of ethical leadership by those in leadership positions in the local councils hinders the achievement of good governance, which is the aim of Local Government reforms. Among the major causes of poor leadership in the Tanzanian public institutions is the deficiency of moral integrity among public officials. Moral integrity is the quality of being honesty and having strong moral principles in consistence. Ethical integrity is defined as the honesty and truthfulness, one of the essential elements of good leadership that underpins good governance. Corruption as unethical practice weakens the ability of government to promote sustainable development and service delivery as well as good governance to the people. It prevents people from getting the effective public services they deserve from their government. The 1998 Local Government reform resulted in decentralizing power from central government to local government units aimed to improve public service delivery and reduction of poverty. However, Tanzanian Local governments still face challenges of poverty among the residents and local authorities, inadequate capacity resources including finance and equipments such as information and communication technology (ICT) due to the lack of adequate support from central government. Finance autonomy is challenged by a dependence on central government financing, transparent and procedure based fiscal allocation of resources have also only been partially implemented and achieved. Because of these and other factors, the Local Government Reform Program was deemed ‘unsatisfied by the annual general budget support review team in both 2008 and 2009 (Tidemand & Msami, xi).
However, Tanzania is still a bit far from attaining socioeconomic and political effectiveness and efficiency due to the apparent unchecked selfish interests and corruption of its public officials, which undermine good governance results. For instance, the Controller and Auditor General’s (CAG) report showed malpractices on Independent Power Tanzania Limited (IPTL) and Tegeta Escrow Account (TEA) scandal in the parliament which involved the collusion of senior governments officials, Tanesco’s Board of Directors, the Business Registrations Licensing Agency (BRELA), Bank of Tanzania (BoT), private banks and subsequent to individual bank accounts (Policy Forum, 2015:1).
Due to those unethical practices, there is growing interest in public service ethics Barberis (2000) as noted in (Okechukwu, 2012:4) both on the national and international levels to ensure good governance. For instance, United Nations (UN) World Bank (WB) International Transparency, (IT) emphasized the importance of ethical practice among government officials and have linked ethical leadership with good governance. Therefore, initiatives have been taken by national governments to establish projects to combat and eliminate corruption and promote ethical leadership in their public administration (Richter & Burke (2007) as noted in Okechukwu(2012:4).
Tanzania took some initiatives through legal frameworks to curb corruption, unethical behaviors and the culture of impunity in order to promoting ethical leadership and good governance. The Prevention and Combating Corruption Bureau was established under the Act No 11/2007, the Public service Code of Conduct of 2005, and the Public Leadership Code of Ethics Act of 1995. The main objective of the above-mentioned legal frameworks and others was to provide promotion and enhancement of good governance and eradicating corruption (www.iaaca.org/AntiCorruptionLaws/ByCountriesandRegions/T/Tanzania/…; Hoseah ( 2014:4), unethical behaviors especially corruption is still perceived to be increasing. Moral standards in the public services are mainly affected by selfish desires of public servants who abuse their offices or position at the expense of the community. Tanzania is ranked at 111th out of 117 among the most corrupt countries in the word in the year 2013 (Hoseah, 2014:2). The current corruption measurements show that African region is terribly corrupt region. Corruption as unethical practice it undermines stability, security and erodes public trust and confidence.
In spite of the initiatives taken by the government, corruption is still prevailing in the country. According to Tanzania Affairs (2014:3), shows that more than Euro 116 billion taken from an Escrow Account at the Bank of Tanzania and transferred to offshore accounts. Moreover, the case of Independent Power Tanzania Limited (IPTL) and Tegeta Escrow Account has already brought a heavy financial toll to Tanzania in addition to the money allegedly stolen from the public purpose. The United Kingdom (UK) and eleven other international donors have suspended US$ 490 million in general budget support for the current financial year (Tanzania affairs, 2014:3). UNPAN (2000:37) noted that good governance in South of Sub-Haran Africa, as in other corners of the world, hinges “on many factors such as sound leadership, encouraging grassroots participation in the governing process, accountability and transparency of government, among others”. We cannot have sound leadership and good governance unless we first have a personal moral integrity to do good and avoid bad as our ethical responsibility. Corruption is an ethical failure and an obstacle to the principles of ethical leadership, democracy, good governance and sustainable human development.
1.3 Statement of the Problem
Ethical leadership is that which has been grounded in ethical norms and practice as a vital medium for attaining good governance for common goals. Leadership ethics and good governance is a concern in Tanzanian Local Government Authorities as it is in other public institutions. Despite the Public Leadership Code of Ethics Act No. 13 of 1995, the 1998 Local Government Reforms, and other legal frameworks to curb unethical behavior and corruption, Tanzania still lacks good governance in correspondence with socioeconomic development. The Local Government administration has not been able to improve the public service delivery and sustainable socioeconomic development as many people anticipated. The failure to meet the expectations has led citizens to lose trust. The lack of ethical practices by Local Government officials makes the achievement of good governance and service delivery difficult, hence the leadership crisis in local government administration. For instance, the Citizen Newspaper (25 May, 2015:1-2) with the heading; this is how your cash was ‘eaten’ in 2013/2014, the Controller and Auditor General (CAG) Professor Assad said that, the audited Local Government Authorities and Central Government institutions made transactions totaling to Sh.4.4 billion and Sh.4.6 billion respectively with companies that did not issue receipts generated through Electronic Fiscal Devices, and a total of 312.04 billion Tanzanian shillings meant for development expenditure at Local Government Authority level was not disbursed that year.
From this evidence of the Controller and Auditor General, still Local Government officials are engaged in the corrupt practices of mismanagement of public fund. The funds meant for the development and service delivery enhancement at the local government are misallocated into the private pockets. The aim of this research is to investigate the phenomenon of ethical leadership from citizens’ perspectives for deep understanding of how ethical leadership promotes good governance in local government authorities.
1.4 Objectives of the Study
1.4.1General objective
The general objective of this study is to investigate on citizens’ perspectives on ethical leadership and its capacity to promote and sustain good governance in the local government authorities.
1.4.2 Specific objectives
i) To examine the characteristics for ethical leadership among local government officials
ii) To investigate ways in which ethical leadership among local government officials promote good governance
iii) To identify whether Kinondoni Local government officials uphold ethical leadership
iv) To find out a way forward towards enhancing ethical leadership for good governance in local government authorities.
1.5 Research Questions
In order to address the objectives above (1.4.2), the study will be guided by the following questions:
i) What are the characteristics for ethical leadership among local government officials?
ii) How does an ethical leadership promote good governance in the local government authorities?
iii) Do Kinondoni local government officials uphold ethical leadership?
iv) What should be done to enhance ethical leadership for good governance in the local government officials?
1.6 Significance of the Study
Firstly, based on the outcomes of the study the findings are expected to have a significant input to the literature on the ethics of leadership and good governance in local authorities. A good grasp and application of ethical leadership in the public organization are expected to enhance the achievement of good governance. The result of this qualitative case study expected help to address the leadership crisis in the Tanzanian public institutions. The study is expected to set basis for further research in the area of ethical leadership and good governance in the local government authorities. Secondly, the study is expected to inform on the need for social change in Local Government practices as well as in other levels of government in Tanzania. It is expected to influence social and economic developments to a great extend and guarantee public officials with moral integrity. Finally, the researcher expects to be awarded a Master of Arts degree in Ethics of Governance and Public Service Studies.
1.7 Assumptions
The study consists of various assumptions; first, the citizens are not satisfied with the local government officers in their office practice. Second, those who will be selected for the interview will provide authentic answers or information appropriate to the study without fear and inhibition. Third, equal opportunities and public service delivery are not fully realized. Fourth, it is an assumption that on answering the interview questions and providing sincere answers will help respondents understand ethical leadership implication.
1.8 Limitation of the Study
This study focused on investigating the citizens’ perspectives about the role of ethical leadership for good governance in Local Government Authorities in service delivery in the selected wards of Sinza, Mwananyamala, Ubungo and Kibamba. Out of 27 wards in Kinondoni Municipality, the study was conducted only in four wards. The study was not without difficulties. One of the difficulties was contacting some of the expected respondents from Local Government Officials who were busy. Moreover, the researcher visited government offices than once seeking for appointment to interview two key informants due to the bureaucratic system in these offices. However, in order to overcome the limitations the proper time management, cost effectiveness and triangulation of research method applied to guarantee reliability and validity of the study. The researcher made prior appointments with Local Government Officers in which they chose their most convenient time for the interview, which the researcher put in his work plan.
1.9 Definition of Key Concepts
Usually terms are given different meaning or explanations basing on the objective aimed by the scholar with the intent to draw certain assumptions for particular study. The major concepts, which are discussed in this study will be defined and giving the contextual meaning in this study
1.9.1 Ethics
Ethics is about what we should do and what we should be like as human beings, as members of a group or society, and in the different roles that we play in life (Ciulla, 2003:302).
1.9.2 Leadership
Ciulla (2003:306), leadership is an influence relationship between leaders and followers who intend real changes that reflect their mutual purposes. According to Graig (2005:132) leadership is defined as a social influence process in which the leader seeks the voluntary participation of subordinates in an effort to reach organizational goals. Leadership is about treating others with respect and dignity, serving others, doing justice and fairness, honest toward others and building community with others.
1.9.3 Governance
Governance is the conscious management of regime structures with a view to enhancing the legitimacy of public realm (Hyden, 1992:7). Governance refers to the exercise of social, political, economic and administrative authority to manage national or municipal affairs (Ngware, 1999:7).
1.9.4 Good Governance
Good governance is the government capacity to discharge responsibilities or functions in an effective, transparent, accountable, responsible, just manner. Hoseah (2014:6), there are six pillars that must be holistic and inclusive for good governance; first, political will of the leaders whereby their words and actions match. They should be honest and ethical leaders. Honesty leadership provides leaders with integrity when discharging public duties. Second, Transparency is needed for informing the citizens all major issues that affect their lives. Communication between the government and the governed is crucial one. Third, accountability, leaders should be held accountable for the use of public resources. If one misuses the office should be accountable before the law. Fourth, participation of the citizens in the management of the government produces good governance. Fifth, Good governance should consist of the rule of law to dispense justice. Good governance maintains the accessibility of justice to all under the doctrine of utra vires in action, that is fairness, impartiality and integrity .Good governance is that which practices democracy whereby citizens have the right to vote and elect their leaders freely and enjoy the right of life according to the Declaration of Human Rights.
1.9.5 Corruption
Corruption is “the abuse of entrusted power for private gain” (http://www.transparency.org/what-is-corruption/#define). Corruption does not only mean money but any misuse of public office for personal interest contrary to what is stipulated in the code of conduct or against the moral integrity.
1.9.6 Public officials
In this study, the concept of public officials implies to those in leadership positions.
1.9.7 Local government:
Refers to authorities established under Article 145 (1) and 146 of the 1977 Constitution of the United Republic of Tanzania. Act of 1982 defines it as a district authority or urban authority, the definition of which this study maintains.
For the sake of this study among all key concepts as defined the above, ethics and leadership will be the key for this research. The operation will base on corruption as ethical problem on three areas of social service delivery including land services, health services and education services. The study aims to investigating on citizens’ perspectives on ethical leadership and its capacity to promote good governance in Local Government Authorities.
1.8 Summary
This chapter has traced the historical background of ethics and its importance in leadership. It came up with evidence, which indicated that corruption is the lack of ethics and moral integrity in public and private institutions. The next chapter will be focusing on literature review. In adding up, the theoretical framework and conceptual framework that guided the study will be discussed in this chapter.
Related: Ethical leadership for good governance in Local Government Authorities