Folklore plays an enormous role in the formation not only of a sense of national identity, but of personal identity too – as children, many of us grow up listening to folktales involving talking animals, wicked witches, supernatural beings and magical powers, and these tales tend significantly influence our development. They can be moralizing or purely aesthetic: regardless, folktales capture the imagination and instil a sense of wonder in the listener, continuing an ancient oral tradition that links us to our ancestors. Many of the elements of folklore and the folktale are shared between cultures – the supernatural, for example, or the enduring figure of the evil, ugly old witch – but Russia enjoys a particularly rich and vibrant body of work deriving from these influences. Although interest in the folktale (skazka, in Russian) and in folkloric influences only became truly prominent in the 19th century onwards, it has had an enormous impact upon the nation’s culture, particularly in the arts. Countless writers have produced both prose and verse that is permeated with folk influences, including Lermontov, Gogol’, Pushkin and Blok. The legacy of folklore is no less prominent in the musical world of the mid-nineteenth to early-twentieth centuries: operas and orchestral works composed by the likes of Mussorgsky, Stravinsky, Rimsky-Korsakov and Liadov draw upon many aspects of folk music and archetypal characters from the skazka. This essay will examine the interaction and interdependence of these art forms, their shared roots in Slavic mythology, and the scale of the impact of these influences on modern Russian culture, with particular regard to music.
The mythological roots of Russian folklore
Many of the elements of Russian folklore can be traced back to their roots in the ritualistic pagan beliefs of the ancient Slavs; across Russia, what is now modern-day Ukraine, and other Slavic nations. Unlike the Greeks, Romans, and other peoples, not much is known about the beliefs or mythology of the prehistoric Slavs, and concrete evidence of this was only discovered in the 1st and 2nd centuries A.D. However, the sheer vastness of Russia and the surrounding areas, and the diversity of the people who inhabited them, means that these tribes were home to a real wealth of religious customs and beliefs. Invasion and occupation by groups such as the Scythian, Sarmatian, and Germanic peoples, as well as contact with the nomadic Iranian Scyths and Celtic tribes, had a significant linguistic, religious and mythological impact upon the Slavonic peoples. Despite this huge diversity, Slavic tribes shared many common beliefs and rituals. Given that these peoples were surrounded by and subject to the forces of nature, an unrivalled power that they could not yet understand, it seems inevitable that they would revere and worship it. This worshipping of nature in all its forms initially manifested itself in the concept of a ‘Mother Earth’ figure, a benevolent and maternal force responsible for the continuous cycle of rebirth and growth – records of the East Slavs indicate the worship of a goddess Mokosh’ (Мокошь), which several scholars believe to be etymologically derived from the root mok-, meaning ‘moist.’ Mokosh’ was essential for a successful harvest, and many pagans would have prayed to her in times of drought. However, it was soon understood that ‘Mother Earth’ alone could not keep the cycles of life, death and rebirth in motion, and more mythological explanations emerged for natural processes and the seasons. One of the most prominent and universal figures in the Slavs’ pagan mythology was Jarilo (Ярило), the god of vegetation and fertility, whose name has a root which connotes brightness in some Slavic languages, as well as summer, spring, corn and wheat. According to belief at the time, Jarilo was separated from his sister Morana at birth – the goddess of winter and death, who appears in other Slavic cultures as Marzanna, Morena, and Mara – and raised in the underworld. His journey away from here to greet his sister, whom he subsequently courted, marks the arrival of Spring and symbolizes rebirth. To this day, Russia celebrates Maslenitsa (Масленица) in the spring, possibly the oldest surviving Slavic folk holiday. The divine wedding between the two lovers appears also to be the origin of the pagan summer festival of fertility, known as Ivan Kupala (Иван-Купала), which celebrates the arrival of fertility and abundance on Earth as a result of this sacred union. Winter arrives, however, when Jarilo is unfaithful to his wife and sister – Morana slays him, sending him back to the underworld and sending the abundance and fertility of nature with him. In this way, the myth repeats itself, and the seasons continue to change in accordance.
Other deities soon developed in what had become a polytheistic culture, and these were primarily anthropomorphic manifestations of the elements and the natural phenomena that had the biggest impact on the Slavs’ daily lives. There is evidence of the existence of one ‘supreme’ deity in the beliefs of various Slavonic tribes, and most of this evidence points towards Perun – the “maker of lightning”. It has been suggested that the name of this god derives from the Indo-European root meaning ‘the one who strikes’, and is therefore probable that Perun was an embodiment of lightning, the fire in the sky. Fire was of central importance to paganism: as the giver of warmth, and light, it engendered a whole range of solar deities and folk traditions. Svarog, the god of the sky, has also been offered as a ‘supreme’ deity, and his two sons Svarozhich (Сварожич, little Svarog) and Dazhbog (Дажбог) represent earthly and heavenly fire respectively. In addition to this, much importance is ascribed to domestic fire, which becomes an important element in the skazka – the hearth was seen as the residence of the ancestors, “a symbol of spiritual and material unity within the family living in its presence”. Spirits, too, are prevalent in traditional Slavic mythology and folklore – once again, they are inherently linked to nature, but can be sinister forces as well as benevolent. Spirits can be found in the forest (лешие), in water (водяные, русалки) or in the home (домовой, кикимора), and although their existence is not individualised like that of the gods, their presence is widespread and they are feared and revered in almost equal measure.
Once an understanding has been established of the pagan rituals and beliefs that dominated early Slavic culture in the centuries prior to, and even during, the period of Christianization, it becomes easier to identify and understand their impact on modern Russian culture. Whilst there are certain problems that arise with regards to the authenticity of the folkloric and pagan influences that appear so frequently in literature and music throughout the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, there is no doubt that a desire to reconnect with the ‘roots’ of Russianness and to cultivate a sense of national identity – a sense of belonging to the russkii narod – plays a role in this revival. The thread of folklore and mythology, passed down orally from one generation to the next, runs through Russian fairy tales, literature and music, and this is even more evident upon close examination of the interaction of these art forms.
The Russian Folktale
Although the Russian folktale itself is not ancient, it is undoubtedly the continuation of an ancient oral tradition, and its enduring popularity is at least partially the result of its ubiquitous nature. Stories steeped in mythology and magic, and passed orally from generation to generation, reflected the beliefs and worldview of a nation and presented eternal themes and values, common to virtually all peoples. The root –kaz in Russian serves to prove that the skazka is intended for aural, rather than visual, perception; other verbs with the same root all have meanings relating to communication, e.g. ukazat’ (to indicate), skazat’ (to say/tell) or rasskazat’ (to tell a story). Initially, the word skazka had quite the opposite meaning, and referred to official, factual documents. However, the frequent falsification of such documents, or the misinformation that they often contained, meant that the term skazka came to mean something made-up or untruthful, just as a ‘fairy tale’ can be used in English to indicate an invention or a lie. The folktale in Russia enjoyed a significant growth in interest and popularity during the 19th century, when there was a revival of folk influences in society. This rediscovery of the songs, folklore and customs of primitive peoples resulted in more extensive study, collection and emulation of folktales – ancient peoples and rituals were seen as “repositories of pre-rational truth and authentic experience”. As with any other literary or cultural movement that yearns for and exalts the ‘golden days’ of the past, the emulation and study of folklore, tales, customs and beliefs was carried out with a sense of nostalgia, and its impact was not limited to the literary world. One of the frontrunners of this was the noble landowner Nikolai Alexandrovich Lvov (1751-1803). He cultivated this nostalgia and sentimentality towards the unique Russian national character, and particularly towards the peasantry – the simple krestyanin – in rural Russia. Lvov’s reverence for the “zhivotvorny dukh/Shchastya russkogo (the animating spirit of Russian joy)” was such that he often emulated folk songs (narodniye pesni) as well as praising them, drawing on metres traditionally used in peasant wedding songs and evoking typical folk characters or elements. He compiled arguably the most influential collection of folk melodies, “Collection of Russian Folk Songs with Their Tunes” (Sobraniye narodnikh pesen s ikh golosami), and claimed that their “simplicity and integrity are uncompromised” – even though they were previously unwritten, had been collected from locations all over Russia, and were notated from untrained singers. Lvov helped to initiate an interest in folkloric music and songs that would be later be shared by other such musicians as Balakirev, Serov and Liadov, and the impact that this had on Russian music of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries is significant. Aspects of folklore formed the basis for many an opera and ballet, the composers of which often used extracts of traditional folksongs in their work, as well as motifs depicting archetypal heroes and villains from popular folktales. The ease with which folktales seem to have been translated into masterpieces of orchestral music and opera demonstrates further the oral element inherent to the folktale genre. Music can bring a folktale to life, transform the fantastical elements into reality and evoke the sounds of nature that are so fundamental to Slavic mythology and belief.
Many attempts were made to create a comprehensive classification of the Russian folktale when it rose to prominence during the 19th and early 20th centuries, but the sheer number of tales and variations made it a particularly burdensome task. The most successful amongst these attempts was initiated by Aarne in 1908, and its subsequent amendment by the American Stith Thompson resulted in its almost universal acceptance as the most comprehensive international classification of the folktale, under the name of the Aarne-Thompson (A–T) classification. This index separated folktales into tale ‘types’, based on the elements and recurrent motifs that they contained – some of these groupings include animal tales, humorous tales and anecdotes, tales of magic, and religious tales. What most of the classifications had in common was the emphasis of the group of tales involving enchantment, fantasy and wonder, and as we have already seen, these tales of magic and the supernatural often lend themselves more naturally to musical interpretation. The wonder tale (volshebnaya skazka) is distinct from other types of folktales primarily in that it overwhelmingly contains elements of fantasy, enchantment and metamorphosis. The Formalist Vladimir Propp, in his book “The Russian Folktale”, outlines his own ideas about what constitutes a wondertale (as opposed to an animal tale, a satirical tale or a realistic anecdote, for example) in terms of structure, content and language. His suggestion that one can examine a wonder tale on a basis of ‘functions’ highlights some of the crucial elements that seem to be universal to this group. Firstly, enchanted ‘helpers’ appear either in the form of animals or objects, providing the hero with an escape from a precarious situation and thus serving the function of driving the plot forwards. Naturally, these objects can take practically any form, such as a magic comb, handkerchief, or a wooden doll; animals that appear most frequently include horses, birds, and wolves, often possessing metamorphosing abilities and other supernatural qualities. The villain in a wonder tale is usually in the form of a master or mistress of some kind of natural force, such as the famous Baba Yaga, or a forest or water spirit. They are sinister, supernatural beings that derive from ancient pagan traditions and mythological beliefs, lying in wait for their victims and ready to test the hero’s strength of character.
Structurally speaking, there are more ways in which wonder tales are distinct from other types of skazka. The opening of these tales serves the purpose of removing the events from the sphere of real space and time and placing it in a fantasy realm of “spatial and temporal indeterminacy”. The Russian volshebnaya skazka often begins with zhili-byli or another such variant, making no direct reference to a specific time, person, historical period, or place. Just as English fairy tales inevitably open with “Once Upon a Time” and often “in a land far away”, events in the skazka take place “v nekotorom tsarstve, v nekotorom gosudarstve”, an ambiguous setting that is isolated from the real world, where the supernatural and the wondrous reign. The fantastical nature of the wonder tale is thus confirmed, and its links with external reality removed. Characters are also subject to a similar generalisation and lack of detail; the dramatis personae of the wonder tale are usually types rather than individuals, and their function in the development of the plot is more important and well-established than their individuality. Propp’s proposed ‘function’ of the hero and other characters is purely as a plot-development device, and the action of the tale is driven by chance events and encounters – whether with a villain, a ‘helper’ animal or object, or another enchanted creature. Action tends to begin when a misfortune occurs, usually because of the violation of a prohibition that was in place at the beginning of the tale; the hero must overcome a villain or force of evil, often with the aid of magic, to resolve the situation. Similarities of language and style also exist, with the repetition of formulas that are particularly noticeable and often characters or events that are trebled – a king will have three sons, or three daughters, or an incident will be repeated three times with a slight variation. It does therefore seem to be possible to distinguish the wonder tale, or volshebnaya skazka, as a sub-genre of the folktale with particularities that differ from other sub-genres, and to establish certain rules or features by which we can define it. It is these tales, with their enchanted creatures, supernatural villains and magical powers, that are most often depicted in musical form, for music can bring the sense of awe, wonder and fantasy to life.
The Baba Yaga:
One of the most universal figures in the fantasy world of the Russian folktale is the Baba-Yaga, the ambiguous and unstable witch-like figure whose characteristics are reflected in tales or folk beliefs across virtually every West Slavic, East Slavic and Eastern European culture. Whether she appears as Muma Padurii in Romanian folklore, as Baba Roga in Croatia and Bosnia, as the Bulgarian Gorska Majka, or in any other of her various forms, the Baba-Yaga always exhibits certain identifying traits which suggest that her origin is inherently connected to these other mythological female figures. An affinity with nature is fundamental to her existence: she is a forest-dweller, surrounded by animals and the elements who are willing to do her bidding when called upon. Her single bony leg gives rise to the rhyming epithet “Baba-yaga kostianaya noga”, and her other grotesquely described features are just as horrifying. Upon entering her hut on chickens’ legs (izbushka na kur’ikh nozhkakh), the hero of the tale is inevitably greeted by her enormous body, lounging atop the oven and with her breasts that “cherez griadku vesnut” and her nose that “v potolok ros”. Despite her terrifying appearance, Baba-Yaga is not exclusively villainous; just as often she appears as a donor character, who helps the hero on his quest. Admittedly, this may be at a price, in exchange for a difficult or impossible task, and it may be reluctant – but her benevolent function in many folktales cannot be overlooked, for the Baba-Yaga is by nature an ambiguous entity. She is a liminal being who vacillates between good and evil, as well as representing many other dualities. The vivid imagery used to depict Baba-Yaga in Russian folklore contrasts with the other character ‘types’ that tend to feature in such tales and whose functionality, rather than individual development, is of primary importance. This is perhaps why various Russian composers were inspired to capture her essence in musical form. Mussorgsky’s 1874 suite Pictures at an Exhibition (Kartinki s vystavki) features a portrait of the famous “Hut on Hen’s Legs (Baba Yaga)”, whilst Liadov too devoted a piece to the supernatural being, entitled Baba Yaga, in 1905.
A great many theories have been proposed as to the origins of Baba Yaga, concerning both the etymological origins of her name and how she came to be such a ubiquitous feature of the Slavic folktale. Ultimately the Baba Yaga is a being who transcends definition and continues to be an enigma, but there are many interesting avenues to explore which may shed light on the beliefs, superstitions and customs that may have played a part in her conception. Afanas’ev, in his study of the folktale, did not distinguish between Baba Yaga as a part of genuine folk belief and Baba Yaga as a fictional character. It has been suggested that she is a purely artistic creation intended to play a role in folk narratives, rather than having been truly believed in; it tended to be spirits such as the leshii (a shapeshifting, forest-dwelling spirit), the vodyanoy (a water spirit) or the rusalka (a water nymph) that were considered part of genuine folk belief, as embodiments of natural phenomena. However, Baba Yaga is inherently intertwined with nature and the elements: the forest is her domain, and she has command over everything within it. She summons birds, beasts and natural forces to either aid or hinder the hero or heroine in their quest. She is seen to control the winds, who respond to her “v odin golos” (Zakoldovannaya Koroleva), and presents manifold other associations with nature: in one tale, “her children were snakes, lizards and frogs” (About the Daughters, AT 480), whereas in others she herself transforms into a snake, a frog or a stone. Etymologically, it is possible that the ‘yaga’ part of Baba Yaga’s name (in which the baba refers to an old woman or grandmother) derives from words relating to snakes, which themselves played an enormous role in Slavic folk belief. Afanas’ev believed Baba Yaga’s name originated from this root, and Maria Kravchenko agreed with this theory, referring to the witch as “woman-snake” – the single, bony leg unique to Baba Yaga could be an echo of many one-legged or limping characters in ancient Greek myths and legends, who were also associated with snakes. Other associations with birds, the elements, and natural phenomena – she is often seen as an embodiment of the storm cloud – confirm Baba Yaga’s status as a mistress of nature. Although her conception may not have derived directly from ancient pagan beliefs about nature, it seems likely that their attitudes towards nature have played a partial role in the creation of Baba Yaga; she has been described as a “desacralized omnipotent goddess, who defends deep-rooted Russian pagan values and wisdom”.
The ambiguity of Baba Yaga’s character also suggests links with pagan beliefs about nature, particularly when it comes to her maternal role in some folktales. There are many indicators that Baba Yaga is associated with motherhood, fertility and femininity. Her grotesquely exaggerated breasts, her association with typically feminine activities such as spinning or nourishing, and her frequent links to domestic fire and the hearth, all suggest a maternal figure. Indeed, in many tales she provides shelter, food and assistance to the heroes or heroines who pass through her residence: in tales of the same type as The Kind and the Unkind Girl (AT 480), of which there are versions in a great many different cultures, the Baba Yaga exercises her moral judgement to reward diligence and punish laziness. In others, she provides an enchanted object or a helper animal who guides the hero on their quest and ensures his or her success. Baba Yaga, despite her female attributes, is not a threatening character in sexual terms, for she is physically repulsive; according to Andreas Johns, she is “a mother without being a wife, reflecting a stage in history when humans conceived of fertility as exclusively female, without male participation”. This idea echoes primitive belief in Mokosh’, the Mother Earth figure and protector of women’s work and women’s destiny, as well as goddess of fertility. Baba Yaga’s ambivalence also hints at her relationship with an Earth mother deity, for nature itself is not always a benevolent force – like the supernatural being Mokosh’, she can determine the fate of a folktale hero, and often uses this power to hinder or harm those who wander into her midst. A “strangely ambivalent mythological figure”, Baba Yaga is a liminal being, on the threshold between good and evil, between life and death. Yet the multitude of other Slavic and Eastern European female mythological figures with which she is associated are all united by an affinity with nature, links to fertility and motherhood, and often particular natural cycles – it is therefore only logical to assume the existence some universal, fundamental basis from which such similarities derived.
The traces of these ancient belief systems can still be found in Russian popular culture, and the figure of Baba Yaga appears particularly frequently in all sorts of places, from children’s stories to paintings to video games. As an archetypal witch-like character and villain, it is easy to understand her enduring popularity – not only has she played a role in Russians’ lives since childhood, but the hyperbolic descriptions of the Baba-Yaga’s appearance and evil ways lend themselves perfectly to vivid representations in a variety of formats. However, this is not limited to visual depictions – various Russian composers from the nineteenth and twentieth centuries were inspired by the folk creation and decided to depict the Baba Yaga through music. Both Mussorgsky’s and Liadov’s musical tableaux share many common aspects in the depiction of their fantastical subject, and they focus primarily on capturing and bringing to life the villainous side of Baba Yaga – after all, she inspires fear in the listeners and readers of Russian folktales, and it becomes easy to overlook the more ambiguous aspects of her character. Providing tempos of allegro con brio, feroce and presto, these two pieces both create a sense of frenzy and unpredictability through staccato accompaniments, extreme contrasts in dynamics, and violent percussion – this captures Baba Yaga’s own unpredictable, often contradictory nature. Descending and ascending semi-quavers, mostly in the upper wind and the violins, contribute to a sense of loss of control, fear and panic in Liadov’s version of Baba Yaga, and Mussorgsky uses similar techniques in Izbushka na kurikh nozhkakh, which features bounding virtuosic passages in octaves and is constantly vacillates between ascending and descending melodic lines, both in pitch and volume. These extremes are perhaps intended to channel the hyperbolic, grotesque nature of Baba Yaga, with her nose that touches the ceiling and her enormous physical features; we get the impression of vastness and can picture her sprawled in her hut. The hut itself and Baba Yaga’s surroundings are evoked particularly effectively in both pieces of music: trills and grace notes in the upper wind suggest birdsong, whilst the percussion part (particularly the xylophone) is evocative of the “zabor iz chelovecheskikh kostei” which ordinarily surrounds the hut. The use of percussion to create this image of skulls and human bones is particularly noticeable in Liadov’s Baba Yaga, and it also serves the function of confirming the Baba Yaga’s association with death and the ‘other’ world. An awareness of approaching danger pervades both pieces of music; in a more subdued passage of the tableau, Mussorgsky underlies the bassoon melody with a moving flute part in the lower register, so that even the calmest moments hint at an imminent threat. Both Mussorgsky’s and Liadov’s musical interpretations of the famous Baba Yaga capture the myriad of influences that led to her conception: her affinity with nature, her association with death and the afterlife, the grotesqueness of her appearance and the power that she possesses to inspire fear in those who cross her path.
Dvoyeveriye in Rimsky-Korsakov’s Russian Easter Festival Overture (Svetliy Prazdnik) and The Legend of the Invisible City of Kitezh…
Arguably one of the most striking and renowned aspects of Russia and surrounding Slavic countries is the overwhelming presence of Russian Orthodox churches. Displaying magnificent architecture, huge golden or multi-coloured domes, and intricately decorated ceilings and icons, these churches have become an instantly recognisable symbol of the nation. Yet, as we have seen, despite such a palpable presence of the Orthodox Church in Russia many aspects of ancient pagan religion remain a part of daily life, of celebrations and of festivals. This is most likely the result of a phenomenon called dvoeverie (double faith), defined as “the coexistence of Christian symbols and saints’ names with traces of older, pre-Christian beliefs” (Oxford Reference). Although the date of the official Christianization of Rus’ is often placed at 988 AD, the sheer size of the area of land inhabited by the Slavs and Slavicized peoples meant that the adoption of true Orthodox principles and beliefs was a very gradual, slow process. Many of these peoples adopted Christianity whilst maintaining their original, pre-Christian beliefs, resulting in this phenomenon of dvoeverie – Golubinskii stated that “in taking Christianity and not renouncing paganism, the mass of Russian people had become double-believing in the precise and literal sense of the word”. The ‘double faith’ that resulted from coinciding Christian and pagan religions can still be felt in modern Russian culture – folktales rely heavily on pagan aspects such as the supernatural, spirits and the power of nature, yet Christian influences can also be identified within these tales. Dvoeverie seems most strikingly represented, however, in music, and particularly in two of Rimsky-Korsakov’s compositions: The Legend of the Invisible City of Kitezh and the Maiden Fevroniya (1905), and the Russian Easter Festival Overture (1888).
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