Abstract
This research essay is an analysis of the use of propaganda by the four major world powers, Great Britain, The United States of America, Germany and Soviet Russia from 1914-1945. I will identify the necessary conditions for effective propaganda acceptance, the evolving technologies that were instrumental in the evolution of propaganda and mass distribution strategies employed. I will identify common trends through the study of a number of examples of wartime poster designs, as well as identify key differences in how the culture and values of each nation influenced the style and tactics used when presenting propaganda to their citizens. Over the course of this document I aim to highlight the importance of understanding how propaganda strategies have been used in the past and how these same strategies have evolved into the digital age.
Introduction
“I saw newspaper reports which did not bear any relation to the facts, not even the relationship which is implied in an ordinary lie. I saw great battles reported where there had been no fighting, and complete silence where hundreds of men had been killed. I saw troops who had fought bravely denounced as cowards and traitors, and others who had never seen a shot fired hailed as the heroes of imaginary victories; and I saw newspapers in London retailing these lies and eager intellectuals building emotional superstructures over events that had never happened. I saw, in fact, history being written not in terms of what happened but of what ought to have happened according to various ‘party lines’.” (George Orwell. 1943)
Propaganda by definition according to the Oxford English Dictionary is the communication of “Information, especially of a biased or misleading nature, used to promote a political cause or point of view”. Although propaganda did not reach its height until the mid nineteen hundreds. The term was coined all the way back in 1622, “the word Propaganda which comes from the latin Propagare meaning to ‘sow or propagate’ was adopted into the title of a new committee of cardinals, the Sacra Congregatio de Propaganda Fide, created by the catholic church to promote the faith in mission territories.” (C.Moore. 2010)
Britain 1800-1914
Social structure and Economic Conditions
The close of the Victorian and entry into Edwardian Britain was a relatively peaceful time. Although its economic advantage had begun to lessen, relative to the growing industries in the United States and Germany. The social class system remained clearly defined. “The working class was divided into three layers, the lowest being ‘working men’ or labourers, then the ‘intelligent artisan’, and above him the ‘educated working man’” (L. Picard., 2009).
Technology
The close of the nineteenth century and the onset of the industrial revolution gave rise to new forms of technology, of particular importance was the invention of large newspaper printing machines. This was the first time in human history that information could be produced and distributed to a large population group on a regular basis.“..Lord Stanhope’s new all metal printing press was able to produce about 250 sheets per hour; by the end of the century the daily mail had a circulation of nearly a million copies” (C.Moore, 2010). Newspapers became the public’s main source of reference for what was happening in the world around them, giving a great deal of power to the writers and editors in the control that they had over what information to pass on and what information to omit from their articles.
“When the Great War began in 1914 the era of mass communication had barely begun. It was just two decades earlier that Alfred Northcliffe’s Daily Mail had proved that a cheap, readable daily newspaper could secure a mass market” (D.Judd. 1972).
At the time there was no radio, no television, the motion picture industry was in its infancy, so it was the regularity of broadsheets therefore, that were bound to play a vital role in shaping public opinion.
Design techniques, strategy and distribution
“The development of mass and multi media offered a fertile ground for propaganda, and the global conflict provided the impetus needed for its growth” (D. Welch. 2013).
The next major evolution in propaganda came in the form Government backed Print Poster campaigns. The Parliamentary Recruitment Committee was set up in 1914 at the start of the War, its primary purpose was to campaign political issues through the circulation of leaflets and posters, organising rallies and other public events. At this point the British army was entirely voluntary. To combat poor recruitment numbers the committee commissioned a number of detailed poster designs intended to pray on the morality of the public. The recruitment problem however, only lasted until May of 1916 when conscription was introduced and enrolment became mandatory.
Fig 1: S. Lumley, 1915
Fig 2: E.J. Keeley,1915
Daddy, What did you do in the Great War
Women of Britain say go!
During this period considerable social pressure was put on men to volunteer, those who did not risked being labeled cowards by their peers. For many, it was their own sense of responsibility towards their families as wage earner, that proved enough motivation to enlist. Posters such as Fig:1 used that powerful sense of duty to family, but twisted it to imply that potentially in the future, children would hold their fathers accountable on the actions that they performed for their country rather than the protection that they provided their immediate family. The examples I have provided are among the most recognisable, and more commonly reproduced posters from the period.
All of these example were printed using traditional Lithography, a printing process that uses a flat stone or metal plate on which the image areas are worked using a greasy substance so that the ink will adhere to them, while the non-image areas are made ink-repellent. In colour lithography, a keystone or plate is created which holds the outlines. Subsequent stones for each different colour have then to be created and inked up and then overprinted. Although the quality of work that could be achieved was undeniable, due to the complicated and slow nature process however this was level of detail was not common practice, most British recruitment posters from this period were much simpler in design, using only text and single colours (see Fig. 3).
Fig. 3: Alfred Leete 1914
Fig. 4: W E T (Undefined) 1915
Britons: Your country needs you
Irishmen avenge the Lusitania
In May 1915 The passenger liner RMS Lusitania was torpedoed and sunk by a German U-boat. Although it is believed that the ship was carrying military supplies, more than 1000 passengers lost their lives in the attack. This is a prime example of how propagandists can choose withhold some information while aggressively promoting other aspects. Fig. 4 shows no indication of any military supplies in transit, only the carnage in the aftermath of the attack. Bodys are shown scattered throughout foreground water, civilians desperately cling to floating debris. While in the background, fires rage and black smoke pours from the vessel as the ship begins to sink into the ocean. The level of detail and realism here is key in conveying a sense of desperation to the viewer. Army propagandists were keen to use a sense of public anger at the incident to drive young men into recruitment offices. The accompanying text states “Avenge the Lusitania”, integrated but clearly defined due to the use of a bold outlined typeface, strong primary colours providing contrast.
“A new secret propaganda bureau was set up in Wellington house,London and under the direction of charles Masterman, a liberal politician and journalist, it undertook a campaign of unprecedented scale, designed to bring the americans into the war. Between 1914 and 1917 the bureau produced huge amounts of material – pamphlets, posters and articles, all of which was delivered through friendly american hands so that the american people were unaware of its real source” (C.Moore, 2010).
This is an important example of propaganda being used to manipulate world events. Without the efforts of British propagandists employed by the government it is unclear whether there would have been sufficient support amongst the American public to convince them to join the war effort as early as they did. As it was, the early American involvement did have a considerable impact on the direction of the war.
United States 1916-1938
Social structure and Economic Conditions
Following the close of the First World War in 1918, many people across the globe were experiencing difficult social and economic conditions.
“The collapse of the american stock market in october 1929 and the great depression which followed, resulted in economic hardship for millions of people. By 1933 almost a quarter of the working population of the united states was unemployed” (C.Moore, 2010).
Design techniques, strategy and distribution
In the United States of America war time propaganda posters took a different approach. Patriotism, a man’s sense of duty to his nation was a key motivator for the Americans of course, as it had been for the british, but rather than guilting the population into action, they hailed the current servicemen as heroes, romanticising the idea of going off to war. Several Government backed agencies were created during this time to help aid in the writing and distribution of propaganda. Two of the largest agencies involved were the Writers War Board and the United States Office of War Information. The Writers War Board handled the actual writing of propaganda and was made up of well known American writers.The United States Office of War Information had one major objective, which was to deliver propaganda wherever they could. This would later go on to included movies, radio broadcasts, and print poster designs. World War II marked the ending of widespread “stone lithography,” but the production of posters continued to increase despite now being in competition with radio and other forms of media print. The mass production “photo offset” method printing technique was created, an evolution of traditional lithography, which allowed for an increased level of consistent quality of image and increased speed. This process is ideal for high volume printing projects and involves etched metal plates created for each colour of the image which then transfer ink to rubber rollers that in turn apply the ink to paper. This is referred to as Offset printing as the ink is not applied directly to the paper. It is estimated that more than 200,000 poster designs were created in the USA alone during the second world war.
Arguably the well known example of American Propaganda was one of the earliest produced. Clearly influenced by Alfred Leete’s ‘Britons” poster (Fig. 3), James Montgomery Flagg’s iconic 1916 U.S Army recruitment poster (Fig. 5) was simple in composition and direct in its communication with the viewer. The increased scale and use of colour on the word “You” created emphasis on the key part the statement. This is particularly effective when coupled with the supporting illustration, a stern faced Uncle Sam, finger pointed at the viewer. Uncle Sam had become symbol of patriotism for the citizens of The United States. His morden form is the result of various revisions, from the work British cartoonists such as Sir John Tenniel and John Leech of the humour magazine Punch, and later refined by American caricaturists Thomas Nast and Joseph Keppler. However it was this piece of work by J.M Flagg, originally published on July 6, 1916 as the cover of U.S magazine “Leslie’s Weekly” that would became most popular. So popular that Uncle Sam was later officially adopted as a national symbol of the United States of America in 1950.
Fig. 5: J M Flagg 1916
Fig. 6: Unknown. Office of War Information.
I want you for the U.S. Army ca.1941.
Give us the fire, we’ll give em hell
In Fig. 6 we can see a clear example that portrays the members of the US air force as heroic figures, again the accompanying type is laid out with careful attention to the hierarchy of information intended to convey the direct relationship between “you” the viewer “we” the military by using scale. The bright primary colour used to house the typography on the design easily catch the attention of the viewer drawing their attention the the more detailed illustration in the center, this is a common trend seen in many of the examples of American propaganda from both the First and later the Second World Wars. “Allied rhetoric was more commercially and psychologically aware, focussed more closely on the positive representation of contemporary civilian and military social orders and was ultimately more effective in the manipulation of public opinion” (J. Aulich, 2014)
Fig. 7: General Motors. 1942
Fig. 8: General Motors. ca.1939
Keep ‘Em Firing
Knock the “heil” out of Hitler
One interesting difference in American produced war time posters was the inclusion of humour. A large number of designs like those seen in fig. 7 and 8 were created that depicted the German leader as foolish, childlike or weak. What all of these examples share is the propagandists use of bold typography and language. Using short repeatable phrases such as “We’ll give em hell'” and “Keep ‘em firing”, they would aim to make the message memorable and repeatable. Contractions were used to shorten selected words, making the phrases read more like conversation than instruction.
Even the developing hollywood movie scene was not exempt. Following First World War films such as ”The Big Parade,” produced by Irving Thalberg proved popular but the industry was revolutionised by the inclusion of cinema sound as we progressed into the Second World War. and the well known ”All Quiet on the Western Front” was released in 1930. Much like the broadsheets and posters that had come before them, they portrayed one side of the conflict and influenced the public under the guise of entertainment. However the studios were hesitant to saturate audiences with too many wartime films, until December 7th when the Japanese military attacked Pearl Harbor, then this approach changed completely. Like the Lusitania incident that had preceded it but on a larger scale, the Japanese attack had such an impact on the nation that from this point on most movies produced during the 1940’s and 1950’s featured some sort of wartime aspect. They were either based on the war directly, or they were set in a war time atmosphere.
Soviet Russia 1920-1940
Social structure and Economic Conditions
In Soviet Russia, the graphic arts also proved a vital tool. The differences in Communist and Marxist control lead to a focus on duty to the state, as a result the vast majority of propaganda from the era reflected this sentiment. Soviet propaganda was aimed at the mobilisation of the working classes in order to facilitate the industrial advancement of the nation and build its military might. Unlike western propaganda however there was little humour to be found. Artists were employed by the Propaganda Section of the Central Committee of the Communist party, images were deemed crucial in order to spread messages to the masses, largely made up of poorly educated, illiterate workers.
Design techniques, strategy and distribution
One of the most prolific of the soviet propagandists was Dimitri Moor. Considered one of the founders of Soviet political poster design, some of Dmitri’s early work followed the same concept as well known American and British recruitment artworks such as the 1914 British First World War poster featuring Lord Kitchener (Fig. 3) and J. M. Flagg’s Uncle Sam poster from the United States (Fig. 5).
Fig 9: Dimitri Moor. 1920 Fig 10: Dimitri Moor
Did you volunteer? Workers of the world unite
In Fig. 9 the central figure mimics the earlier western designs with a pointing finger, encouraging men to enlist in the Red Army. The main figure is positioned above eye level as a way to make the subject more imposing but the primary difference comes from Moor’s choice to fill the negative space with a background of factories representing the industrial state. The phrasing is in direct comparison to the British and American posters, ”I want you” has been replaced by “Did you volunteer”, an indication that enlisting was expected in Soviet Russia. Much of Moor’s artwork was restricted to a minimal black and red colour pallet. Black was commonly used for all capitalist elements, while red was used for socialist elements such as flags and workers’ shirts.
From this soviet culture of embracing the developing modern technologies came Constructivism, the Russian school of “production art” that embraced machine-age design functionality and steered away from traditional decorative design work. Constructivists utilised simple flat colours, short, sharp slogans, geometric shapes and diagonal lines combined to produce bold images.
Another of the most well respected designers in this field was El Lissitzky, a Russian born artist, designer, typographer, photographer and architect who designed many exhibitions and propaganda for the Soviet Union in the early 20th century.
Lissitzky’s development of the ideas behind the Suprematist art movement were very influential in the development of both the Bauhaus and the Constructivist art movements. His stylistic characteristics and experimentation with a wide range of production techniques that were only recently developed have had an influence on graphic designers ever since.
GERMANY 1930-1945
Social structure and Economic Conditions
Miserable living conditions for German people after the First World War were made worse still by the unrealistic demands placed on them by the Treaty of Versailles. This combination of factors created the perfect environment for propaganda and the promotion and acceptance of extreme political views and paved the way for the rise of The German Workers’ Party (Deutsche Arbeiterpartei, DAP), which would later become known in English speaking countries as the Nazi Party, and would push the world toward a Second World War.
Design techniques, strategy and distribution
German leader Adolf Hitler was a strong advocate for propaganda. “He believed, tragically for the world that the masses were weak and malleable and the effectiveness of propaganda could be greatly enhanced if supported by terror and intimidation.He also insisted – perhaps the legacy of his training in art as a young man – that visual presentation was of fundamental importance. So it was Nazism, as brutal a regime as the world has ever seen, was provided with one of the most effective corporate identities ever devised, layden with symbols.” (C.Moore, 2010)
Fig.12: Nazi Flag Fig.13: Flag of the Imperial German Empire
Ca. 1920-1945 Ca. 1871-1918
The colour scheme for the Nazi flag initially drew on the colours of the imperial German Empire (1871-1918), this resonated with many Germans who rejected democracy and the Weimar Republic. The swastika became the most recognizable icon of Nazi propaganda. A pre-existing mark used throughout the world for thousands of years to represent good luck, prosperity and well being, was taken and repurposed into a symbol of racial purity, solidarity and pride for Hitler’s supporters, and a sign of oppression and fear for the Jewish living across central and eastern Europe. A simple but power logo, Hitler made every effort to display it to the German people as a symbol of change. Having it appear on the new flag, as well as on election posters, arm bands, medallions, and badges for military and other organizations.
On the 18th of July 1925, Adolf Hitler published the first part of Mein Kampf (My struggle), an autobiographical work that described his political ideology and future plans for Germany. It was followed in 1926 by in a further publication in which he argued that effective propaganda appealed “to the feelings of the public rather than to their reasoning ability”. He then set out five clear guidelines for how propaganda should be produced to maximise effect. He believed propagandists should avoid abstract ideas, employ repetition of only a few key ideas, use stereotyped phrases and avoid objectivity. He sought to supply only one side of the argument and consistently criticise enemies of the state, encourage subjectivity and most importantly, identify one enemy in particular to vilify.
Fig:14: Cover of Mein Kampf. Ca 1939 Fig:15 Bruno Hanich. ca. 1942.
The typeface used on the 1939 reproduction of Mein Kampf (Fig. 14) was one that would become synonymous with the Nazi regime; Black Letter (also sometimes referred to as Gothic, Fraktur).
Where the US propagandists would often portray the enemy as childish or laughable and weak, Nazi propagandists frequently depicted their enemies as sinister, vile characters. In Fig.15 the “Jewish financier” is shown as a conspirator, acting behind the scenes manipulating Germany’s enemies.