Race and class conflict are among two of the most persistent tensions in American history. Both forms of conflict sometimes exist simultaneously. Yet, based off of class readings and lectures it would seem that class has played a more pivotal role in shaping society than race has. While race has played an important role in American culture and history since its conception, the class system breaks down these racial barriers and categorizes citizens in economic groupings. These groupings can contain anybody from any race.
According to a recent government census, roughly twenty-six percent of the African American population is considered to be in the lower class and the same can be said for those of Hispanic or Latino origin. Since the end of the Civil War which pitted North versus South against one another, members of the lower class have struggled to maintain their daily life and have been subjected to “an aggressive and often harsh system of justice.” Through decree and authorization from some power figure, police are allowed to arrest or detain any criminal suspect in certain areas. Many individuals who were apart of the lower class were subjected to punishments that are considered to be inhumane today which was legal under the 13th Amendment. A common method of punishment that was used was whipping and other various forms of torture and embarrassment such as tar and feather that would never be legal under today’s societal standards. With the 13th Amendment also came the Radical Reconstruction. This occurred in the 1870’s and its followers believed in equality of civil and political rights. They also believed in the guarantee clause of the Constitution and that the reconstruction was not conservative. This is important to the topic class because no matter where you stood in the class system many believed one should be treated equally under the Constitution. This further reinforces the idea that lower class neighborhoods are subject to injustice and unlawful force. According to the NAACP, African Americans make up roughly one million of the nearly 2.3 million prison population. While this is indeed a racial statistic, if one refers back to the government census it is made clear that a large proportion of African Americans and other minorities are likely not able to afford adequate legal defense or proper education therefore making them far more likely to become incarcerated which makes it more of an issue regarding class not race. Racial stereotyping does exist within modern society but those with proper support and status within these minority groups often times make it through the judicial system and maintain freedom. Examples of this within today’s society are the many news headlines reading “so and so celebrity has been let off with a warning for so and so crime,” whereas most lower-class and underprivileged individuals might suffer under the same judicial system. This further reinforces the idea that class and wealth status can give an edge or thorn to those subject to unfair treatment.
The treatment of Blacks and other minority groups within American society directly before and after the Civil War largely plays a role in their class position within modern times. Doctrines and codes such as the “black codes,” were such a countermeasure that suppressed and stunted class movement for African Americans. After the 13th Amendment came the 14th Amendment which stated that “any person born in the United States is automatically an American citizen” and was passed in the late 1860s. The reaction from former Confederate states was the passing “black codes” that undermined equal citizenship; without constitutional reinforcement, which showed the South would ignore the Bill of Rights. The codes gave authority to the police to arrest anyone without a job which effected those without education the most. While these codes were racial in theory, they resulted mostly in class obstacles and barriers for minority groups. These barriers, mostly economically oriented, contributed to the harsh treatment of these groups in the judicial system according to George Appo. Despite his literacy and professional education, Appo was limited and trapped in a pool of unskilled labor opportunities which was a direct result of his class status. As a result of these codes and barriers, apprenticeship and training in the arts for minority groups was severely limited and forced those classified in the lower classes into “street trades,” in an attempt to provide for their struggling families. He was a thief and was heavily involved with fraud. Appo once gave a testimony and became influential to the rest of the criminals within the lower class. George was a part of the Green Goods Swindle which was a three-pronged operation and dealt with the stealing of money in highly illegal ways. He grew mixed up with a Chinese father who was a murderer and an Irish immigrant mother. These two genetic identifications were often associated with the lower class and brutal treatment and could have been why Appo was so intensely marginalized. George Appo decided save himself and “break away from the crooked life,” and eventually became an undercover agent for the Society for the Prevention of Crime. The miracle story of George Appo proves that good can come out of a difficult situation. Appo’s success story brought faith to the marginalized and hopeless.
Since the civil war, the government has recognized the struggles of the lower classes and developed many legislatures regarding their welfare. One such example of this is the Federal Farm Loan Act (1916) which gave low-cost, long-term mortgages to farmers. This was done to make farming a more economically friendly and viable option for those who did not move to larger cities to take part in industrialization. Another example of popular and effective Progressive legislation was The Federal Trade Commission (1914) which helped diminish monopolies and close the gap between the rich and the poor. This anti-trust and monopoly legislature laid the groundwork for further sanctions on as seen in Roosevelt’s New Deal.
In George Pullman’s town the businesses class was a crucial part in the creation and eventually in the destruction of the community. Pullman wanted to fix things within the class system and make society better. Pullman’s town was the solution to the problem with no name and was constructed by “solving the social problems of the time by providing adequate housing for its workers” and it was directly involved in developing “middle-class standards.” Appo was opposed to poor families and people coming to settle in Pullman’s town. George Appo helped shaped conditions in the town and the average workingman in Pullman would be well above what would be considered typical of the time. Pullman did not want the people working for him to develop into a class system and fall under the horrific spell. He also did not allow even an acre to be sold under any circumstance, which was unfeasible for people to make a living by owning a home, property, and putting down roots.
Unlike the working class, the upper class often stayed at the Florence Hotel, which was a luxurious hotel and would cost more than the daily salary for the average worker per night. This hotel was very expensive for those in Pullman town based on their average salaries. Rooms in the hotel would be rented out to the upper class for three to four dollars a day, twice the daily pay of an unskilled worker.” When Pullman laid off workers and lowered their wages a strike broke out which shut down the railroad system. This strike cripp
led the town so badly that Pullman had to rely on the government help to end the strike and get the trains moving again. As one can see, class plays a major role in society as people with an upper class advantage have more opportunity and say within a community than those of the lower class with less purchase power. Even though classes existed outside of the Pullman town, employees of George Pullman found it almost impossible to find an upward mobility and equality.
George Plunkitt participated in Tammany Hall to help push his own political agenda. Tammany Hall was a New York City political organization with a great portion of lobbying power. This organization was important because it helped assist in societal problems and would represent their people to the greatest extent. Plunkitt watched over Irish immigrants and the lower class. The long lasting effects that Plunkitt saw on Tammany Hall was that it marginalized groups and what it could have on politics. He took advantage of the large number of people who were influenced easily. The Tammany Hall Machine focused on immigrants who were provided certain things such as political favors in order to gain loyalty that would carry over to him when it came time to vote. This was seen as corruption or honest graft because he essentially bought or bribed people in order to win a vote. The use of honest graft deals with pursuing one’s personal interests, and interest of the public. Plunkitt used honest graft knowing that a bridge would be built by buying the surrounding land and selling it back to the government for a huge monetary value.
While there were many laws and government interaction that aided those in lower classes since the civil war, one would argue that the most extensive government action regarding the class system and economy was taken under “New Deal” legislation and statutes. New Deal legislation falls under three categories: industrial, financial, and social. An example of an industrial policy under New Deal legislation is “The Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938,” which enacted minimum wages, maximum hours, and enforced child labor. Minimum wage aided the lower classes and helped close the gap between the middle and upper classes, but as the cost of living increased many have called for an increased minimum wage. While Industrial legislature focused more on the structure and timeframe of the work force, financial and social legislature focused on those participating in the work force.
Of all the New Deal legislation, none addressed the issue of class more than the social policy “Social Security Act of 1935,” which consisted of four components. The first component of this revolutionary act is that of Old Age Insurance. This includes retirement funds, pensions, and senior benefits which made a significant empowerment to America’s older citizens. The second of the four components is Unemployment Compensation. Unemployment benefits provide workers who have been terminated from the work force due to unforeseeable or uncontrollable factors with support in an attempt to keep their heads above water until said worker can find another job. This allowed for class mobility even without a stable income because those terminated from their work often sought a new job that would elevate their class status. The third, Assistance to The Disabled or Blind, benefited those whose loved ones require extensive medical attention which in modern society is seen as a significant burden for lower class families. In today’s society, there are many examples of affordable healthcare acts that greatly determine whether or not a family who has a disabled member can be competitive or mobile within the class system. Finally, aid to families with dependent children was also implemented under the Social Security Act. This provides families who have economically dependent children a tax benefit, or deduction, that helps save money and therefore allows for greater class mobility.
New Deal legislation has received praise and criticism from some of America’s top scholars. Among them, Barton Bernstein largely argued that New Deal legislature did not improve class mobility in the slightest. Bernstein believed that the majority of legislature within Roosevelt’s ‘New Deal’ promoted and empowered corporate America and capitalism. This approach views new deal legislation as something that simply changed the viewpoint of the poor from the government rather than to buckle down and fix societal issues. William Leuchtenburg, another prominent thinker, argued that the New Deal and its legislature included groups who had never been recognized before but also believed that some Americans still were left behind. While the middle class was established as a result of this legislature, “slum dwellers and most negroes,” were still left out of the equation. Those not left behind and offered some new class mobility often times found themselves in this newly established “middle class.” Finally, our last thinker, Carl Degler believed wholeheartedly that the New Deal and its impact was considered to be revolutionary and life changing for those involved. During the Great Depression there was little mention of race or class, all Americans were effected in one way or another. The lower class seemed to have been hit the hardest, and many began to live below the poverty line. When the government became more involved and introduced new ideas they introduced new hope. Class mobility became possible again through the New Deal’s industrial, financial, and social policies.
Another example of a class who was given some but not all freedom and improvement were women in the late 20th and early 21st century. Women have fought for many equalities and freedoms within society, but today it is much more common and socially acceptable for woman to do so. Since it is not considered taboo to discuss the gender inequalities in society, it just comes to show how much has changed regarding gender inequality has since the civil war. While scholars like Turner would put women in a racial and ethnic category even though he rarely even talked about women. I would argue that categorizing women in a group would likely put them back into a class system. The approach that women belong to a class and not ethnic race belongs to Betty Friedan. This is because other classes have been seen to benefit or struggle based on their classifications. Feminists came to prominence in 1910 and sought to fight against traditionalist views of women. The women’s equality movement accompanied many other movement groups and fought to enjoy the same liberties as their male counterparts. Her free time was to be dedicated to finding a significant other and not on education or economic advancements. This was traditionally the view of the role of females within society at this point in time.
Frederick Jackson Turner, came up with the “frontier thesis” This thesis was written in 1893 and it is the history of the western frontier. The frontier was known as the event that shaped American character and the American Culture. His novel provided insight for the Amricans and cities. Cities, like Chicago, were the forerunners of development and settlement. Those who were able to manage their own lands became difficult to make a profit due to the railroads. Turner stated, “the existence of an area of free land,its continuous recession and the advancement of Ameircan settlement westward, explain American development.” The development and description of the frontier began with hunters, then goes to traders, later to ranchers and ranch life, then to farmers to grow crops of corn and wheat , and then to cities where the factory makes these different foods. In order to have this type of system you needed to be in
a class. Being a part of the “frontiersman” a rancher and a farmer was idealized in he American development. Whether you were working in the farm or in a city you were part of a class. This frontier helped with American development. Settlers across from all over such as the East and West poured all over into this new American frontier. Various group struggled for property, profit, and dominance into the cultural society. Class and monetary value was important not only to ranchers,farmers, and cities, but also to families who came to look for work and a new development into the United States.
Key issues such as income equality, property ownership, suffrage, and traditionalist views about women in the workplace were repeatedly discussed. Many of the issues that were being protested in the early 1900s are still being protested and fought over. Recently though, women have made astonishing advances and strides in society and have participated in roles traditionally dominated by males. In 1920 the 19th Amendment of the Constitution was passed which allowed women to vote in national elections. This success comes with heavy backlash. Scholars such as Plunkitt even considered a women’s right to vote as “non-American.” According to Friedan, the only way women could advance within American society was if men stopped making decisions on behalf of women and if women took up leadership positions where it mattered the most.
Friedan and other scholars wished to determine why women fell so far behind, and why women as a class seemed to continuously be suppressed within society. During Friedan’s studies, she learned that teenage pregnancy rates rose nearly 170%. These women then gave up their educational studies and pursuit of knowledge after becoming mothers. Many believed that they would find fulfillment and development through their roles as wives and mothers. Friedan and many other scholars believe that the traditionalist views of women as child bearers stunted their educational growth and therefore made them less qualified for tougher jobs and careers. As time has worn on, many women have become independent instead of dependent and have focused on their studies and their own drives as people rather than a “superiors’.” These recent strides and successes within the movement of gender equality can likely be credited to the education of women in today’s society. In years to come, there will likely be other countries who traditionally suppressed women change their stance on this topic and allow for a more acceptable environment for women to succeed.
The same can be said for any of the other classes according to Friedan, referring to the “problem that has no name.” Lack of education and therefore the knowhow to escape things such as poverty, race and gender inequality, and other societal issues has been known to stunt growth within an individual or group as a whole. Friedan and those who agree with her would likely argue that more funding for schools in lower class neighborhoods would remedy the majority of the situation. Currently, the schooling system in America rewards schools with higher scores on national exams with more funding. This means those with access to earlier education and success benefit more than those who are playing catchup. Education is the best counter to obstacles in the way of class mobility and is key to solving the problem without a name according to Friedan.
While my paper is an argument about class, race can be seen just as important. In Horwitz, he gives readers the story about the Conderates in the South and how South Carolina and North Carolina were portrayed as areas that were prejudice. To explain this “prejudice” seen he says, “making assumptions about someone you have never met.” This quote touches on the significance that blacks are discriminated for years on ends no matter where they are and which community they are in. For instance, a black teenager boy was accused of murdering a white man for gesturing a rebel flag. While the teenage boy was being trial, people saw the white man as someone who was famous. People who saw this were groups such as the KKK. Through the symbolism of the Confederacy and how differently blacks are treated from whites, Horwitz can easily help us see how race is tied. The novel, indicated how black people were treated, they were mocked, what they faced, and the end result of them finally sticking up for themselves. Before the Civil War, African Americans had very little say in anything, however, after the war they lost all of those privileges and nobody cared to hear what say they had to say until laws for them started to get passed. A crucial law that was passed was Black Codes in 1865/1866. During this time for Caucasion people, Confederacy was seen as positive , but for African Americans it was a harsh time due to the fact of how they were treated, their struggle, and what they could and could not do. Many African Americans had trouble dealing with their race and it continued to get harder for them. As you can see, race can be important when debating race and class, but I would argue race not as important as class.
In conclusion, while class and race are often times synonymous, one is always referred back to a different classification or characterization. This repetitive referral back to the class system prioritizes this over race. Understanding class in history, especially since the Civil War, is crucial to understanding the obstacles many have encountered in hopes to never have to encounter them again. In American history, as stated when discussing the New Deal, many in the lower and working class are often times left behind or forgotten. American people continue to be classified in groups regarding income, education, and opportunity which largely defines their successes in life. This system will likely not disappear but hopefully improves through the government and civilian movements mentioned above.