The Cold War was fought on many fronts, but the most unexpected front was the Olympic stage. Victory in the Olympics acted as a proxy for military success in the Cold War. Many athletes competed for their country knowing full well the pressures of the international conflicts between the United States of America and the Soviet Union. The pressures of the Olympic sports acting as a proxy to the Cold War were so great that the West, which includes the United States and Western Europe, sent Mohammad Ali out to other nations on a publicity trip in order to gain the publics favor. It became clear that the publics support was necessary in order to win the Olympic stage during the Cold War. When the Soviet Union’s female athletes clearly began beating the United States on the Olympic stage in the 1950s, the United States responded with delegitimizing accusations that the Soviet athletes were not really women. These accusations resulted in the adoption of gender verification purported to maintain the integrity of the athletic competitions. Gender verification in the Olympics resulted from both Western insecurities about Soviet athletes as well as their assumptions of stereotypical gender norms, which led to the lives and careers of female athletes being destroyed for political gain.
Gender verification, also known as sex-testing, is the process of verifying one’s biological sex. There are many ways to test for the biological sex in a person, and the practice has evolved over the years. The first practices of gender verification in sports were on the world stages of national championships for sports such as track and field (Heggie 4). When sex-testing was first introduced to the athletic setting, it was an extremely degrading process for the female athletes. The original way that gender verification was initiated was through a physical examination. Simply put, female athletes were checked by doctors in order to prove they were actually female. According to Vanessa Heggie, the process was described as a “visual examination of the genitals and secondary sexual features”; although, some athletes experienced more intimate examinations in which they equated it as “‘a grope’” (Heggie 5). This clearly was very humiliating for the athletes and extremely controversial during the championships that it was used.
Appropriately, due to the indignity and controversy of the physical test, the International Olympic Committee decided to authorize the Barr Body test for the Olympics. The first Barr Body test was implemented in the 1968 Grenoble Winter Olympics (Heggie 3). The Barr body test used a more scientific approach than the physical examinations, which resulted in greater public support. The Barr body test is a chromosomal test in which cells are taken from the cheek and then evaluated in a lab to find the Barr Body, which is an X chromosome that is not active (Heggie 4). Essentially, females, whose genotype is XX, will have a dormant X chromosome because humans only need one X chromosome. Males, whose genotype is XY, will not have a dormant X chromosome. Therefore, if a female is tested and found with no dormant X chromosome, then she will be considered a male.
While on paper the Barr Body test seems very efficient and cost effective to find out whether or not an athlete is male or female, there are many discrepancies surrounding the test. It is true that most of the population fits into a simple binary of females being XX and males being XY, but there are many people who do not fit into this binary due to certain disorders and syndromes. For example, women can have Turner syndrome in which they only have one X chromosome and their genotype is XO (Rupert 348). Not having another X chromosome results in the absence of a Barr body, which would then cause the athlete to fail the test even though they have female genitals. Another disorder is Androgen Insensitivity Syndrome. Women who experience androgen insensitivity have internal testes and at the same time also have external female genitals (Rupert 342). As a result, an athlete with this syndrome who is “anatomically female”, will fail the test because she is “genetically male” (Rupert 342). Due to these issues, the Barr body test is extremely controversial and raises the question of what exactly defines a man and a woman, a question the West took upon themselves to answer during the height of the Cold War.
Even though the United States and the Soviet Union were allies during World War II, there was still major distrust between the countries due to opposing political policies. The Soviet Union was a communist state run by dictator Joseph Stalin, while the United States was a capitalist system led by President Franklin Roosevelt. Following World War II, the Soviet Union and the United States were the two major superpowers of the world. After the war ended, Roosevelt aspired to establish a relationship with Stalin. Unfortunately, Roosevelt died before making any accomplishments, leaving the next president, Harry Truman, to oversee foreign affairs with the Soviet Union.
In the period of transition from Roosevelt to Truman, the United States’ mistrust of the Soviet Union increased because Stalin began expanding his political power (Miscamble 3, Weber 2). Stalin began new waves of political and geographical advances, which he condoned because of the lives and goods that were lost during World War II (Weber 4). Observing these new developments, Truman realized the Soviet Union intended to spread Communism and dominate Eastern Europe as the new superpower if given the opportunity. The advancements made by Stalin caused more strain between the Soviet Union and the United States, ultimately sparking the beginning of the Cold War during the early 1950s.
As the animosity between the two countries grew, steps were taken by each country to out-do the other. Propaganda became a weapon both the United States and the Soviet Union used to win the favor of the public (Rider 5). Both countries began displaying their dominance in what ultimately was seen as a competition between capitalism and communism. Even with all of the media and propaganda coverage, the Olympics developed as the ultimate platform to show superiority to the world. Sports were no longer friendly competition. Instead, the politics of the Cold War changed the Olympic arena into a battleground between the Soviet Union and the United States in which every possible detail and outcome was used to influence the publics opinion of the opposing country.
During the Cold War era, the United States had clearly defined gender norms throughout the country. The common man was supposed to be big and strong, with a job that provided for his family. The stereotypical woman was expected to stay at home, look the part, and take care of the kids. To look the part, women were not supposed to be bulky or muscular. Instead, it was more favorable if they were skinny, small, and frail. The same was expected of female athletes, and the media clearly perpetuated these expectations of gender norms through the reports on female athletes, if they even were reported on at all.
The media had many clear patterns when reporting on female athletes. Stereotypically, because women were not the “athletic type” in the West, the media saw no trouble focusing on how they represented the gender norms, instead of their athletic achievements. Stefan Wiederkehr mentions five consistent ways the Western media focused on female athletes, including “naturalizing”, “trivializing”, and “sexualizing” (Wiederkehr 3). The media also focuses on the “psychological issues” of the female athletes because it was the accepted stereotype that women were too emotional (Wiederkehr 3). Wiederkehr argues that the most important media portrayal is of the athlete in her traditional gender role as a mother rather than that of her athletic performance (Wiederkehr 3).
In 1952, during the very first Olympic Games in which the Soviet Union participated, it was clear that they would be a dominant force for quite some time. During the Helsinki Olympics, the Soviet Union women dominated the Western athletes by winning half of the medals available in gymnastics, while the USA won none (Pieper 5). This immediate success, especially from women, unsettled the United States, as the Soviet Union emerged as a defiant force on the Olympic stage.
Immediately when the Soviet athletes started to beat the United States in the Olympics, it translated directly to the politics of the Cold War. If the Soviet athletes were superior over the United States’ athletes, then communism was victorious over capitalism. If the United States continued to look weaker compared to the Soviet Union without any retaliation, then the United States would look like they had lost a large battle in the Cold War, especially in gaining the approval of the public. Therefore, when female Soviet athletes began beating the female athletes representing the United States, the media took control of the situation to influence the public’s opinion in favor of the West.
Many Western female athletes fit the stereotypical gender norms expected of them. When the Soviets started beating the United States, it was only natural for the Western media to pick apart the Soviet athletes due to their nonconforming appearances in accordance with the Western gender norms. Reporting on how the Soviet athletes appeared, and not how they performed, became a diversion tactic to keep the West in the publics favor. If the Western media could portray the Soviet athletes as being the odd ones out because they did not fit the societal gender norms, then the public’s favor would sway to the West. By focused on the gendered irregularity of the Soviet athletes, the media was able to divert attention away from the fact that the United States was losing the Olympic battle.
The Western media stirred up disapproval of the Soviet athletes because they did not fit into the proper gender norms set by the West. The Soviet athletes were larger, more muscular, and did not fit the poster girl complexion like the Western athletes did. Soviet athletes completely abandoned the Western take on gender norms and what their idea of a woman athlete was. From looking different and excelling in their sport, Soviet athletes were demolished by the media. The typical media reports of the Soviet athletes were often demeaning and sarcastic towards their appearances, and they continued the trend of focusing on how they defied the cultural gender norms rather than focusing on their athletic achievements. For example, Irina and Tamara Press were often reported as being “‘too mannish’” or having a “‘boyish appearance’” (Wiederkehr 4). In reality, the Press sisters were reported in this manner due to the fact that they were beating the Western athletes, and the public needed to be diverted away from their success. Other athletes were described as a “‘leggy queen’” while the sport of shot-put itself was called “‘an offense against womankind’” only because the athletes were too masculine and did not appear feminine enough. In contrast, Western athletes were often praised on their appearances because they fit the gender norms, and they were a good way to distract the public from the United States’ losses in the Olympic arena. Western athletes were described in sexualized ways such as a “‘willowy blond…with the figure of a Las Vegas showgirl’” or a “‘peachcake’” (Wiederkehr 4). The comparison of Western athletes in the media alongside Soviet athletes caused a great distraction for the public and favored their opinions toward the Western athletes because they were portrayed as being normal.
With the media’s tirade against the Soviet athletes for not fitting into the societal stereotypes, it is no surprise that athletes competing alongside them were the next to join in. Seeing how Western athletes were expected to beat the Soviets due to the political pressures of the Cold War, when they did not beat them, and in fact suffered a huge loss against the Soviets, responsibility needed to be taken. It seems appropriate that the Western athletes would lay the blame on the Soviets. Many athletes, after suffering a hard loss, would answer the media’s questions with blame towards the Soviet athletes based upon their appearance. If the United States lost in the Olympics, it was not because of huge amounts of hard work, talent, and the dedication of the opposing athletes, it was a result of doping and gender fraud. While the pressures applied to the Western athletes by the United States were indeed copious, and they might provide some sort of a scape-goat, the other athletes, who had dedicated their entire lives to their craft in the same way the Soviets did, were quick to belittle them based on the Soviets appearances rather than skill. These insecurities of the Western athletes perpetuated the media’s ability to barrage the Soviets and preserve society’s gender norms.
The self-doubt portrayed by Western athletes of the Soviet female athletes actually being men, cemented the IOC’s ability to introduce sex-testing into the Olympics. According to Lindsay Pieper, officially, the IOC reported sex-testing was implemented to keep the “integrity” of the sports (Pieper 136). As previously discussed, it is very clear that sex-testing was indeed enforced due to the societal pressures brought on by the West, and not in order to maintain the integrity of the Olympic sports. The introduction of gender testing caused many negative implications on the athletes. Many athletes lives were destroyed due to these arbitrary tests. For example, Maria Jose Martinez Patino, a Spanish hurdler, experienced false positives on her sex-test. When the test came back negative, she lost everything. After Patino received the false positive, she was forced from her home, lost her scholarship money, and all of her official running times were deleted (Pieper 135). This practiced continued on for years. When the tests were still being enforced in 1996, at the Olympic Games in the United States, of the 3387 athletes tested, eight athletes tested positive (Genel et al 1). Of the eight positive, “seven had androgen insensitivity” and the other had a “5-α-steriod dehydrogenase deficiency”; all athletes who tested positive were allowed to compete (Genel et al 1). While the athletes were still allowed to compete, it does not take away the fact that they were humiliated, and all of their hard work, talent, and dedication was scrutinized and doubted in front of the whole world.
It is a terrible situation to realize that these devastating practices were allowed to continue for such a long time, stemming only from political issues in the Cold War. Due to the United States and the Soviet Union, the only two remaining superpowers after World War II, the Olympic stage was compromised and the legitimacy of the female athletes was questioned and discredited. The media used many degrading tactics in order to distract the public from the West’s failures on the Olympic stage. By not focusing on the athletic achievements of the athletes and focusing instead on their looks and figures, the media reinforced societal gender norms while outcasting a large group of dedicated female athletes only because they were from the Soviet Union and were beating the United States. Facing incredible adversity as well from the governments of the West, athletes gave in to the pressure put on them by not only the governments, but the media as well. The athletes did not stick together but instead joined the bandwagon of the media to create what seemed like a legitimate excuse for their failures. These false delegitimizing accusations, along with the political pressure of the cold war, caused gender verification to be introduced, and as a result ruined many athletes careers who had their entire life’s work discredited in front of the world.
Works Cited
- Genel, Myron, and Arne Ljungqvist. “Essay: Gender Verification of Female Athletes.” The Lancet, vol. 366, 2005, pp. S41–S41., doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(05)67843-9. This essay is really well thought out on the topic of gender verification. This essay provides a simple yet thorough history of gender verification in the olympics. Great examples on when female athletes tested positive due to genetic disorders and the consequences of the test. I will be using this essay to help explain the science behind the Barr body test.
- Heggie, Vanessa. “Testing Sex and Gender in Sports; Reinventing, Reimagining and Reconstructing Histories.” Endeavour, vol. 34, no. 4, 2010, pp. 157–163., doi:10.1016/j.endeavour.2010.09.005. Article provides a great history of gender verification. Article also touches on gender studies with examples of when the first tests began. I will use this article to touch on the gender studies topic such as gender norms and stereotypical ideals within societies. Article also has a great section about systematic femininity.
- Pieper, Lindsay Parks. “Sex Testing and the Maintenance of Western Femininity in International Sport.” The International Journal of the History of Sport, vol. 31, no. 13, 2014, pp. 1557–1576., doi:10.1080/09523367.2014.927184. This article argues that gender norms and stereotypes were major factors during the Cold War. The article also argues about the insecurities of the West regarding female athletes who were successful. I will definitely be using this article to argue the political side of why sex testing was introduced. The article has great examples of athletes and how they were affected during the gender verification of the Cold War.
- Pieper, Lindsay Parks. Sex Testing: Gender Policing in Women’s Sports. University of Illinois Press, 2016, ucblibraries.summon.serialssolutions.com/2.0.0/link/0/eLvHCXMwY2AwNtIz0EUrExITjQyTEi1Tzc1SzUyAVEqKsamBWaq5eYqxeXJiKmj7c1CAhVegpVekSTATQxhsawzo5OaixJR8vcyUXPj-ZMwDE0Hd_tzKTPjSIWABD1mBCd4NBjq6H7TbHtizZza1AGYDVid3Hx-koRgzM0tgKQ3qsxmBVoVYmJiYQ8_mgfFNuBm4S5PhPVikKshNkIE1FbQvQYiBKTVPmEEY0dxTUFMAX1VeLMLAHZxaoVACOjcjL12UQcXNNcTZQxfJwHjoYE18kgX4wHhgfSLGwJsIWuSeVwLeDJciAdpfDaxLTNMszNPMgc0GYN_VIi0NdBiLYZpxqmmKYaokgyxeM6UIyEszcAHbA9ARBhkGlpKi0lRZBp7S5CS4JgCC_ocK. This paper argues that the IOC was able to use its power in regards to sex testing to define societal norms of womanhood. Argues that the IOC’s involvement was a detriment to female athletes and punished them for being successful. I will use this article to help argue the point that gender testing was in fact not for the integrity of sport, but for the integrity of gender norms. Gender testing was put in place to control societal norms.
- Rupert, James L. “Genitals to Genes: the History and Biology of Gender Verification in the Olympics.” Canadian Bulletin of Medical History = Bulletin Canadien D’histoire De La Médecine, vol. 28, no. 2, 2011, pp. 339–365., doi:10.3138/cbmh.28.2.339. Article argues that gender testing was a result of trying to keep the integrity of Olympic sports. Goes into great depth on the history and types of tests used against female athletes. I will use this article to create examples as to why sex testing was extremely degrading. I will also argue for the fact that these definitions of women hurt the sport as well as their successes in athletics.
- Wiederkehr, Stefan. “’We Shall Never Know the Exact Number of Men Who Have Competed in the Olympics Posing as Women’: Sport, Gender Verification and the Cold War.” The International Journal of the History of Sport, vol. 26, no. 4, 2009, pp. 556–572., doi:10.1080/09523360802658218. This reading from class touches on political and media influences during the Cold War. Article portrays media tactics when reporting on female athletes. I will be using this article as a basis for my paper. Definitely will be using the general theme that is repeated throughout the paper in which gender testing is in place to keep athletes fitting into the stereotypical norms.
- Miscamble, Wilson D. “Roosevelt, Truman and the Development of Postwar Grand Strategy.” Orbis, vol. 53, no. 4, 2009, pp. 553-570. This article provides a great background of the historical policy changes during the Cold War after World War II. The article goes into great depth about the transition from Roosevelt to Truman. This article will be used to help the reader understand the background of the Cold War.
- Weber, Claudia. “The Export of Terror-on the Impact of the Stalinist Culture of Terror on Soviet Foreign Policy during and After World War II.” Journal of Genocide Research, vol. 11, no. 2-3, 2009, pp. 285-306. This article provides an angle on the Cold War from the Soviet point of view. The article explains why Stalin believed he could take the actions he did, as well as why there was a distrust after World War II with the West. Great point of view of the history from the Eastern side of the Cold War.
- Rider, Toby C. “A Campaign of Truth: The State Department, Propaganda, and the Olympic Games, 1950–1952.” Journal of Cold War Studies, vol. 18, no. 2, 2016, pp. 4-27. This article provides insight to the publics impact during the Cold War. The article delves into the historical background but also focuses on how winning the Cold War needed to be done by winning the publics favor. Great emphasis on the angle of the public and very useful.
Originally published 15.10.2019