Before the Mongol conquest, starting in 1206, civilizations in Afro-Eurasia were already facing a decline due to the nomadic incursions. In China, the Turkic invasions led to the collapse and fall of the Tang Dynasty in 907 CE. In the Arab-Islamic world, Baghdad and Anatolia fell in hands of the Turkic invaders early in the eleventh century. The Seljuk Turks invaded Byzantium and defeated the Byzantine troops at the battle of Manzikert in 1071. To further the conquest of these civilizations, the Mongols emerged with the leadership of Genghis Khan, and were able to expand their empire to stretch from the west in Europe all the way to the east in China. They were even more impactful than earlier nomadic invasions brought by the Turks. The Mongol conquest of societies in Afro-Eurasia between the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries led to the devastation of many lives and brutal destruction of already instilled territories, while also boosting commercial growth and trade, along with accepting other cultural ideas in the areas the conquered.
Due to the Mongol invasions, Afro-Eurasia faced a major change which was a demographic drop and urban depopulation. According to The Secret History of the Mongols, the Mongols, along with their leader, Genghis Khan, annihilated the entire Tangut population (Doc. 1). They were merciless against the people they conquered. Because it was written for the private consumption of the royal family, the anonymous author might have portrayed the Mongols victorious as they celebrated the atrocity of the conquest. It was focused on glorifying Chinggis Khan and the Mongols. The Tartars, a group of Mongols marched into Ryazan and tore down the entire land, along with a countless amount of civilians, including the monks, men, women, children, nuns, and priests (Doc. 3). The fact that The Chronicles of Novgorod was written by monks might have influenced their writing. Since the monks were able to see the destruction through religious lenses, they might have seen the Mongols as God’s instrument to bring punishment among them. As someone who was a victim of the attack, it is understandable for the monk to discredit the Mongols out of bitterness and emotions by calling them “locusts”. The Mongols were responsible for the death of millions in cities of Persia, Russia, and Khwarazm depicted in the chart. In addition to the statistics, Juvaini wrote a descriptive account of the destruction happened in Nishapur when the Mongols arrogantly slaughtered the heads of countless civilians (Doc. 6). The fact that Ata-Malik Juvaini was a Persian chronicler and governor of Baghdad under Mongol rule might have explained why he acclaimed them with high praises of the powerful and almighty acts of the Mongols. Not only did the Mongols bring upon a demographic drop to the Tanguts, the people of Russia, and those in Nishapur, but they also executed a number of losses in Japan. However, the typhoons in the geography of Japan helped them defend against the Mongols. The brutality of the Mongols and their destruction during the invasions were justified in each of the civilizations they brought damage to. In addition to the attacks, they also spread the bubonic plague which led to a distinct drop in the population.
Besides the significant change in the demographic impact, Afro-Eurasia benefited from the Mongol’s impact of tremendous commercial growth and trade into many regions. Paper money was one of the innovation introduced to create a trust with the government, as it was conducive to trade (Doc. 7). Lots of goods were being further exchanged, as well as cultural ideas since flying money was valuable for facilitating long distance trade. Because the author, Francis Balducci Pegolotti was an Italian outside source traveling on the outskirts of the Mongol Empire, he might have been so approving of the Mongols because Western Europeans were not only spared, but they also had the opportunity to pick up on the many innovations brought after the conquest. In Jami’ al-Tawarikh, Ogedei, Chinggis Khan’s son, is known for his justful character and for furthering commercial growth through construction of various buildings (Doc. 4). Rashid al-Din, a Persian physician and Mongol high official, is a biased source towards the Mongols because of his position in society, and it shows it in the document by the acclaims he makes of Ogedei, the second Great Khan. He is portrayed as an altruistic ruler who was always willing to better the kingdom by unifying society into a period of peace, known as the Pax Mongolica. Besides the invention of paper money and the construction of infrastructures, the Mongol Empire facilitated long distance trade of products and merchants by adopting the practice of the paisa. It was a passport that granted travelers the permission to cross through a ruler’s land. Furthermore, the Mongol invasion forced military and organizational innovations in Japan. The shogun under the Kamakura Shogunate took the leadership role and centralized his military government, effectively increasing their warlords in the direction of the invasions. After the studying the Mongol tactics, the Japanese were able to innovate defensive walls and weapons. Through the military, stage performances called noh drama were introduced which appealed to the military elite.
In addition to commercial growth and the expansion of trade networks, the Mongols displayed religious tolerance and diversification in the civilizations they conquered. Based on the reports collected from Marco Polo, the Chinese natives, who were treated like slaves, had a lower rank in the Great Khan’s rule that the foreigners. Since the Great Khan was more tolerant towards the diverse group of foreigners over the natives, the Tartars, Saracens, and Christians became governors holding authority in their hands (Doc. 2). Because Marco Polo, a European explorer, was able to live in the Mongol Empire under Kublai Khan’s reign for seventeen years, he might have analyzed the Mongols in an exclusive way that no one was able to detect. He was able to compare the Great Khan’s treatment from the Cathayans to the foreigners. Mongke Khan, the fourth Great Khan, professed that the Mongols were highly tolerant of many religions because God “has given different ways to men” (Doc. 5). William of Rubruck, a Franciscan friar, might have declared the Mongols as religious tolerant and concerned about justice because he was treated fairly well by the Mongols who accorded him honor. William was sent on behalf of the King of France to visit the land of the Mongols because at that time, they were a threat to Europe. The Mongols employed Muslims to specialize in the financial administration where they served as tax collectors and administrators. The fact that Kublai Khan could not rely on Chinese officials to rule China, but rather a multicultural group of administrators may show tolerance towards foreigners. Furthermore, he recruited Persian doctors to advance medicine in China. Since the Mongol Empire was so widespread and conquered so many diverse civilizations, it did not attempt to force one, unified religion or way of life on its people. The Mongols permitted their subjects to practice their own religions without conflict, which allowed cultural spread across Afro-Eurasia.
To sum up, the Mongol conquest impacted the societies in Afro-Eurasia for both the better and worse. Their brutal destruction wiped away immeasurable amounts of cities and civilians. On the other hand, the Mongols revived trade and advanced commercial growth, while also becoming tolerant of other practices and religions in the lands they seized. After the Mongol invasions, Afro-Eurasia became a consolidated empire under the Mongol rule for a period of time. Then, the decline of Mongol power created an impact of Eastern Europe and Anatolia. Lithuania, Serbia, and the Ottoman Empire were able to rise after responding dynamically to the Mongol challenges. There was a spread of technological inventions brought to the Europeans which included coal mining and the movable type. Because Russia fell to the Mongols, Lithuania learned and was able to maintain a centralized government and military strength. The rise and fall of the Mongol Empire brought many advancements to all of Afro-Eurasia.