Explain the function of each part of the digestive system identified in the diagram above?
Digestive system
The digestive system is a group of organs working together to convert food into energy and nutrients to feed the entire body. Food passes through a long tube inside the body known as gastrointestinal tract. The gastrointestinal tract is made up of the mouth, the pharynx, the oesophagus, the stomach, small intestine and large intestine. In additional to the gastrointestinal there are several important accessory organs that help your body to digest food but do not have food pass through them. The digestive system with the help of other systems, acts as a gigantic “meals on wheels” providing nourishment over a hundred trillion cells in the body. Accessory organs of the digestive system goal of providing energy and nutrients to the body, six major functions take place in the digestive system
• Ingestion
• Secretion
• Mixing and movement
• Digestion
• Absorption
• excretion
First i will explain the gastrointestinal organ then the accessory organs.
Mouth
Food begins its journey through the digestive system in the mouth, also known as the oral cavity. Inside the mouth are many accessory organs that aid in the digestion of food, the teeth, tongue and salivary glands. Teeth chop food into small pieces this is mechanical digestion. The salivary glands then produce an enzyme called salivary amylase, this starts the breakdown of starch, this is known as chemical digestion. The function of the salivary amylase is to moisten the food with mucus, making it easier to swallow, Mastication is the chewing of food in the mouth to make a bolus. The tongue and other muscles the push the food into the pharynx.
Pharynx
The pharynx is a funnel shaped tube connected to the end of the mouth. The pharynx passes the chewed food called a bolus from the mouth to the oesophagus. The pharynx also plays an important role in the respiratory system, as air from the nasal cavity passes through the pharynx on its way to the larynx and eventually the lungs. Because the pharynx serves two different functions, it contains a flap of tissue known as the epiglottis that acts as switch to route food to the oesophagus and air to the larynx
Oesophagus
The oesophagus is a muscular tube connecting the pharynx to the stomach that is part of the upper gastrointestinal tract. It carries swallowed masses of chewed food called a bolus, along its length. At the lower end of the oesophagus is a muscular ring called the lower oesophageal sphincter or cardiac sphincter. The function of this sphincter is to close of the end of the oesophagus and trap food in the stomach.
Stomach
The stomach is a muscular sac that is located on the left side of the abdominal cavity, just lower to the diaphragm. In an average person, the stomach is about the size of their two fists placed next to each other. This major organ acts as a storage tank for food so that the body has time to digest large meals. The stomach makes strong, rhythmic, churning movements when there is food in the stomach, this helps to continue the mechanical breakdown of food which begun in the mouth by the chewing of the food. The stomach churns food with gastric juices to produce chime. Some of the gastric juices are hydrochloric acid, this kills bacteria and stimulates the production of pepsin, the stomach also contains digestive enzymes called pepsin that digests proteins, the enzymes continues the digestion of food that begin in the mouth. The absorption of alcohol begins in the stomach.
Small intestine
The small intestine is a long, thin tube about 1 inch in diameter and about six meters long. 90% of digestion process takes place here, also most nutrients are absorbed here. It is located just lower to the stomach and take up most of the space in the abdominal cavity. The small intestine is coiled like a hose and the inside surface is full of many ridges and folds called rugae, these folds are used to maximize the digestion of food and absorption of nutrients. There are 3 parts of the small intestine the duodenum ,jejunum and the ileum. In the small intestine there are projections called villi. The villi contain even more projections called microvilli which absorb nutrients and minerals from the chime in the duodenum, then send the nutrients and minerals into the blood stream to feed all the cells to keep them healthy and allow for growth and repair.
Large intestine
The large intestine is a long thick tube about 2 and a half inched in diameter and about 5 feet long, which receives waste from the small intestine, mostly un-digestive food. It is located just lower to the stomach and wraps around the border of the small intestine. It consists of the caecum, colon, rectum and the anal canal. The large intestine absorbs water and contains many bacteria that aid in the breaking down of waste to extract some small amount of nutrients. It also makes some important vitamins like vitamin k which is important for blood clotting. The colons main function is to dry out the indigestible food residue called faeces, by absorbing water and passing it through the capillaries into the blood stream. Faeces in the large intestine exit the body through the anal canal.
Teeth
The teeth are 32 small hard organs found along the edges of the mouth. There are four types of teeth. each having their own function in breaking down food. Each tooth is made of bone like substance called dentin and covered in a layer of enamel. Teeth are living organs and contain blood vessels and nerves, under the dentin is a soft region known as the pulp. The first are incisors in each jaw, they are used for cutting and biting food. Next to these on either side are canines, these are cone shaped and are often referred to as eye teeth. They are sharp and pointy and are used to tear food, and two in each jaw. Then is the premolars, 4 in each jaw, these are used for crushing and grinding food.
Tongue
The tongue is located on the lower portion of the mouth. The tongue is a muscular organ and contains lots of taste buds, which are responsible for the tastes which are sweet, sour, bitter and salt. The taste buds on the surface of the tongue detect taste molecules in food which connect to nerves in the tongue to send taste information to the brain. It also moves food towards the teeth so it can be made into a pulp called a bolus, then the tongue passes the bolus down the throat.
Salivary glands
Surrounding the mouth are 3 sets of salivary glands. The parotid gland, located below the ear. The submandibular and the sublingual gland both located below the tongue. The salivary glands are accessory organs that produce a watery secretion known as saliva. Saliva helps to moisten food and lubricate the food with mucus, making it easier to swallow. it starts the digestive process by introducing salivary amylase to act on starch, turning it into polysaccharides, this is chemical digestion. It also helps to keep the mouth and teeth clean, keeping it free from bacteria, because it contains lysozyme and antibodies.
Liver
The liver is the largest and heaviest gland in the body roughly weighing about 3lbs in weight, its rubbery to touch, and is triangular in shape. It is located in the right hand side of the abdomen and is protected by the ribcage. The liver has about 500 different functions but some of the mains ones are to produce bile, where it is secreted into the small intestine. It also breaks down toxic substances. It stores iron, vitamins and glycogen which is a form of sugar. It is often referred to as the body’s radiator. It protects the body against diseases by removing and destroying bacteria that may have passed through the walls of the digestive tract. It filters blood from the digestive tract and also produces energy from carbohydrates.
Gallbladder
The gall bladder is a small pear shaped sac attached by the cystic and bile ducts to the liver. It stores concentrated bile until its needed. It has many folds, which flattens out as it expands. The gallbladder secretes the bile through cystic duct and the common bile duct into the duodenum. The bile is a thick liquid produced in the liver as a result of the breakdown of red blood cells.
Pancreas
The pancreas is a small gland, it is greyish pink in colour. It is about 6 inches long and shaped like short lumpy snake with its “head” connected to the duodenum and its “tail” pointing to the left wall of the abdominal cavity. The pancreas is an endocrine and exocrine gland, it’s the only gland in the body that is both endocrine and exocrine. Endocrine produces hormones like insulin and glucagon. Exocrine secretes pancreatic juices containing digestive enzymes, which exit through ducts. The pancreas secretes digestive enzymes into the duodenum through the pancreatic duct. The cells of the pancreas are divided into islets of the langerhans, which produces insulin, and alveoli’s that produce enzymes.
Outline the composition of proteins, fats and carbohydrates, and explain how each of them are digested and absorbed by the body?
Proteins
Composition Absorption Digestion Examples
They are complex molecules made up of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen. Sometimes sulphur and phosphorus.
They are large molecules composed of chains of amino acids.
Amino acids are the basic building blocks of protein.
They are used to form enzymes. The broken down protein is absorbed into the small intestine. It is absorbed by the microvilli in the brush borders and passed to the blood capillaries to be transported around the body and on to the cells. Excess amino acids are stored in the liver and converted to energy. Digestion starts in the stomach by the action of the enzyme pepsin.
Pepsin breakdown proteins in the stomach into polypeptides.
Protein digestion is completed in the small intestine by the action of the enzymes, trypsin, chymotrypsin and carboxypeptidase, breaking them into amino acids.
Eggs, meat, fish, cheese, tofu, beans, lentils, yoghurt, nuts and seeds.
Fats
Composition Absorption Digestion Examples
Composed of 3 elements carbon, oxygen and hydrogen. Triglycerides are the main component of most fats and oils. The minor components include mono and diglycerides, free fatty acids, phosphatides, sterols, fatty alcohols, fat soluble vitamins and other subtances.
They are poorer in oxygen and richer in carbon and hydrogen than carbohydrates.
Know as lipids.
These are solid and semi solid.
Fats do not have the ability to dissolve in water. Absorption of fats takes place through mucosal lining of the small intestine.
They enter the epithelial cells and the endoplasmic reticulum transports them.
Before leaving cells they are coated in protein which assist them to move out of the cell.
They leave the cell and enter the lymphatic capillaries-lacteals.
They pass through the lymphatic system before entering the blood.
The liver excretes bile and lipases into the small intestine to start the breakdown of fats.
The villi and microvilli then absorbs the nutrients sending them through the lymphatic capillaries and on to the cell and liver. Digestion starts in the small intestine.
Fat clumps together and they need bile (secreted from the gallbladder) to breakdown or emulsify fats into smaller parts.
The enzyme pancreatic lipase works to breakdown the surface of fat droplets.
Breakdown into free fatty acids monoglycerides. Palm and coconut oil have 86.5grams of saturated fat per 100g.
Butter 51grams
Suet, lard 35-45grams.
Dark chocolate 32grams.
Goats cheese 24grams.
Cheddar cheese 21grams.
Whipped cream 14grams.
Nuts and seeds 31%
Sausages 15%
Carbohydrates
Composition Absorption Digestion Examples
Are molecular compounds made up of 3 elements carbon, hydrogen and oxygen.
Molecules combine in different way to form saccharides, basic unit of carbohydrates.
Simple carbohydrates are mono saccharides are single unit sugars.
Two unit sugars are known as disaccharides.
Polysaccharides can contain hundreds of sugar units, complex carbohydrates.
Occurs in the small intestine .
Microvilli with brush border enzymes absorb any remaining sugars.
The villi and microvilli absorb nutrients to the blood capillaries and send them to the cells of the body.
Any remaining molecules are sent to the liver for final digestion. Salivary glands in the mouth release amylase to breakdown starch into polysaccharides.
In the small intestine the pancreases releases enzymes called pancreatic amylase.
The small intestine produces enzymes which are lactase, sucrose and maltase all which work on disaccharides and break them down into monosaccharides which are a style of sugar. Sugary cereals, crackers, cakes, flours, jams, breads, potato and sugary drinks.
Draw a diagram of a typical cell, and state of each organelles?
A cell is the smallest structural and functional unit of an organism, which is typically microscopic. All living beings are made up of cells. Cells often described as building blocks for the body. Every human body consists of more than 50 trillion microscopic living units called cells. A cell consists of many parts including the cell membrane, cytoplasm, many organelles, a nuclear membrane, a nucleus which contains the cell’s DNA and chromosomes.
Organelles
Cell membrane: forms the outer boundary of the cell and allows only certain materials to move into or out of the cell this is called semi-permeable.
Cytoplasm: a gel like material inside the cell, it contains water and nutrients for the cell.
Nucleus: controls all activities of the cell. It contains chromosomes with DNA which contains all the genetic information.
Endoplasmic Reticulum: this moves materials around in the cell, translation and folding of new proteins.
Ribosome’s: makes protein for the cell and is responsible for the growth and repair of the cells.
Golgi bodies: the information centre, are used for packaging and secreting of energy.
Flagellum: the sensory pary of the cell.
Mitochondria: is the battery of the cell or power house, it breaks down food and releases energy to the cell.
Lysosomes: are chemicals used to digest waste.
Vacuole: are the storage areas for the cell, it also helps maintain homeostasis.
Nuclear membrane: this separates the nucleus from the cytoplasm.
Acrosome: helps spermatozoa fuse with ovum.
Peroxisome: breakdown of metabolic hydrogen peroxide.
Centrioles/centrosome: these play an important role in mitosis.
Centrioel: there are there to help the cell when it comes time to divide. They are put to work in the process of mitosis and the process of meiosis.
Classify tissues into the four main groups; epithelial, connective, muscle and nervous, give an example of each?
There are four main types of tissue in the body. Human body tissue consists of groups of cells with a similar structure working together for a specific function. Human tissue is another way of describing how our cells are grouped together in a organized manner according to the structure and function. These groupings of cells form tissues, which then make up organs and various parts of the body.
Epithelial tissue lines the cavities and surfaces of blood vessels and organs throughout the body. Its widespread throughout the body and aids protection absorption and secretion. Epithelial tissue is made of continuous flat sheets of closely packed cells. Epithelial tissue has one free surface because it lines organs. It also forms the outer layer of our skin. It has no blood supply and an excellent nerve supply. Epithelial tissue can replace itself every 48 hours. There are 3 shapes of epithelial tissue which are squamour, columnar, cuboidal.
There are 8 different types of epithelial tissue.
Simple squamous epithelium: it allows materials to pass through by diffusion and filtration, and secretes lubricating substance. It is located in the air sacs of the lungs and the lining of the heart, blood vessels and lymphatic vessels.
Simple cuboidal epithelium: it secretes and absorbs, this tissue is found in ducts and secretory portions of small glands and in kidney tubules.
Simple columnar epithelium: It absorbs, it also secretes mucous and enzymes, it is ciliated tissues that are in bronchi, uterine tubes and uterus. smooth are in the digestive tract and bladder.
Pseudostratified columnar epithelium: secretes mucus, ciliated tissue moves mucus. The cil
Stratified squamous epithelium: This tissue protects against abrasion. It lines the esophagus, mouth and vagina.
Stratified cuboidal epithelium: This is protective tissue, it is in the sweat glands, salivary glands and the mammary glands.
Stratifed columnar epithelium: This tissue secretes and protects, its found in the male urethra and the ducts of some glands.
Transitional epithelium: This tissue allows the urinary organs to stretch. It lines the bladder, uretha and ureters.
Connective:
Connective tissue is most abundant, widely distributed and varied type. Connective tissue is tissue that connects, supports, binds or separates other tissues or organs, it helps hold our body together, supports other tissue and even transports substances. There are 8 types of connective tissue adipose, lymphoid, yellow elastic, bone, cartilage, aerolar, white fibrous and blood. Connective tissue varies in blood supply depending on the extracellular matrix can be solid, semi solid or liquid. Connective tissue is found under all epithelial tissue. It can also be found as the outer coverings of blood vessels, nerves, oesophagus and other organs. Adipose can be found beneath the skin, around kidneys, heart, eyes and breast.
Muscle:
Muscle tissue is soft tissue with a striated nucleus it also contracts and relaxes. Muscle tissue is made of cells that have the special ability to shorten or contract in order to produce movement of the body parts. Muscle tissue is highly cellular and is well supplied with blood vessels. There is 3 types of muscle tissue skeletal which is striated and is under voluntary control, smooth which is not striated and is under involuntary control, and cardiac which is striated and is under involuntary control. Skeletal muscle is attached to the skeleton. Smooth muscle can be found in the walls of organs in the stomach, bladder and blood vessels. Cardiac muscle is found only in the heart, it pumps blood around the body.
Nerve Tissue
Nerve tissue is made up of nerve cells called neurons, these cells are insulated and protected by cells called neuroglia, which make up the brain, spinal cord and nerves. Neurons send and receive messages from one part of the body to the other, nerve tissue does not divide or renew continuous supply of glucose and oxygen. A nerve tissue is responsible for co-ordinating and controlling many body activities. It stimulates, muscle contraction, creates an awareness of the environment and plays a major in emotions, memory and reasoning.
Explain the difference between benign and malignant tumours ?
Tumour
A tumour is a group of cells that multiply in an abnormal way. A tumour also known as a neoplasm may be solid or fluid-filled. Through time the abnormal cells come together to form a lump, which is called a tumour or growth. There are many different types of tumours and can vary in shape and tissue. It does not always pose a health threat. Tumours can be either benign or malignant. The key difference between benign tumours and malignant tumours are spread and invasion.
Benign:
“Benign” means it is non-progressive, it will stay at it is, and its contained in a capsule. As benign tumours grow they push surrounding tissue and organs out of the way. Pressure from a benign tumour may damage surrounding tissue, but a benign tumour never invades or spreads into other organs. They might grow big but they never spread to other body parts. Benign tumours are non-cancerous, some may press against nerves or blood vessels and cause pain or other negative side effects. Benign tumours of endocrine tissues may result in the excessive production of some hormones.
Adenomas: Are tumours that arise from glandular tissue, epithelial tissue is the thin membrane that lines the hollow organs, blood vessels and covers most of the body.
Fibroids: Are benign tumours that grow on fibrous or connective tissue of any organ in the body. Uterine fibroids can cause vaginal bleeding, pelvic pain or discomfort, and urinary incontinence.
Haemangioma: are benign tumours which consists of a collection of too many blood cells. They can often occur on the surface of the skin and are colloquially called strawberry marks. The majority of haemangioma appear at birth and gradually go away after months or years.
Malignant:
Malignant tumours eat and destroy the healthy/normal tissue around them as they increase in size. Malignant tumours damage the tissue around it from the time it first begins to grow. Malignant tumours have the ability to spread and invade other body parts and organs by dispersing tumour seedlings through the blood or lymphatic system. These seedlings then embed into other organs and form tumours that are called secondary tumours or metastases. all malignant tumours have the ability to spread, but many tumours vary in the speed in which they do so. Slow growing malignant tumours spread very late in their lives where aggressive malignant tumours begin to spread when they are very small, so many malignant tumours are discovered and treated before they get the chance to spread and invade or to form secondary tumours. The word cancer only applies to malignant tumours so all cancers are malignant tumours. Sometimes malignant brain tumours are referred to as “brain cancer” though they do not share all of the characteristics of cancer. It is very rare for a primary brain tumour to spread beyond the brain or spine. Tumours are also graded from 1 to 4. The more aggressive and dangerous the tumour is, the higher the grade. Grading tumours is done to help physicians and other communicate more clearly about the tumour and to determine the treatment, also for a better understanding of the patients current health and prognosis.
Explain the structure and function of each element of the urinary system?
The urinary system also known as the renal system produces, stores and eliminates urine, the fluid waste excreted by the kidneys. The kidneys make urine by filtering waste and water from the blood. Urine travels from the kidneys through two thin tubes called ureters and fills the bladder, when the bladder is full, a person urinates through the urethra to eliminate the waste.
Kidneys are paired organs found on each side of the back of the abdominal cavity. Kidneys are dark red bean shaped organs, they are 11cm long and 6cm wide and weigh 150g. The larger left kidney is located a bit higher than the right kidney. They are protected by the back muscles and the ribs, as well as the adipose tissue (fat) that surrounds them like a protective padding. The bean shaped kidneys have an outer convex side and an inner concave side called the renal hilus, where the renal artery, vein and ureter are found. A thin connective tissue called the renal capsule, which helps to protect them against infections and trauma, surrounds each kidney. This capsule maintains the kidneys shape. Inside the renal capsule is the outer layer called the renal cortex, a soft, dense and vascular tissue, and a darker inner layer called the renal medulla, which consists of several renal pyramids, the cone shaped structures with apices pointing toward the kidneys centre.
The main function of the urinary systems is to remove waste products and excess fluid from the body, they do this by filtering the blood to make urine. The urinary system also produces a hormone called erythropoietin that is responsible for controlling the rate at which red blood cells are made and an enzyme (which travels through ducts) responsible for controlling blood pressure. All of these functions are needed to help the body maintain homeostasis.
Ureters are two slender muscular tubes which connect the kidneys to the bladder and carry urine from the kidneys to the bladder. The ureter is about 10 to 12 inches long in the average adult, they are wider at the top then become very narrow at the bottom where they enter the bladder. The tubes has thick walls composed of a fibrous, a muscular, and a mucus coat, which are able to contract. A small triangular fold of tissue called the trigone stops urine from flowing back into the ureters after it has emptied into the bladder.
A ureter is one of two ulerine tubes that carry urine from the kidneys to the bladder. The ureters are lined with a mucus membrane, that helps to protect against infection. Each ureter is about 10 to 12 inches long. Urine flows down partly by gravity, but mainly by smooth muscle in the walls of the ureters contracts rhythmically, moving urine away from the kidney and towards the bladder by peristalsis.
The bladder is a hollow elastic organ that functions as the body’s urine storage tank. The inside of the bladder is lined with a mucus membrane. It is one of the most elastic organs of the body as its able to increase its volume greatly to accommodate between 600 and 800ml of urine to maximum capacity. The walls of the bladder contains three layers of smooth tissue, many wrinkles known as rugae line the inner surface of the urinary bladder and allow it to stretch as it fills with urine. The bladder is roughly spherical in shape. Its shape and size vary among individuals. During pregnancy the uterus take up significantly more space and severely limits the expansion of the bladder.
During urination, the muscles in the walls of the bladder contract, urination occurs. The internal sphincter located where the bladder and the urethra join, keeps the bladder closed while it fills. The external urethral sphincter relaxes to allow urine to pass during urination. The person voluntarily relaxes the external urethral sphincter and the muscles of the bladder contract, allowing urine to pass out of the body through the urethra which carries urine out of the body. In men it passes through the penis, so the urethra is longer in men, 8 inches than in women 1.5 inches.
The urethra is a duct that transmits urine from the bladder to the exterior of the body during urination. The male urethra can be divided into three sections, the prostatic urethral, the membranous urethra and the spongy urethra. The female urethra is embedded within the vaginal wall, and its opening is situated between the labia. The female urethra is much shorter than that of a males, being 4cm long.
The urethra is held closed by the urethral sphincter, a muscular structure that helps keep urine in the bladder until Micturation occurs. Micturation means going to urinate. Because the urethra is linked with the reproductive structures, its characteristics in males are different from those in females. The male urethra is about 18 to 20 cm long and passes along the length of the penis before emptying. In men the urethra serves as a passage way for both urine and semen. When the penis is erect the flow of urine is blocked from the urethra, allowing only semen to pass through.
Name and explain three diseases/disorders which affect the urinary system?
Kidney stones disease:
Kidney stones usually comprised of a compound called calcium oxalate, are the result of an accumulation of dissolved minerals on the lining of the kidneys. These deposits can grow to the size of a golf ball while maintaining a sharp, crystalline structure. The kidney stones may be small and pass unnoticed out of the urinary tract, but they may also cause extreme pain upon exiting. Kidney stones that remain inside the body can lead to many conditions, including severe pain and ureter blockage, that blocks the path urine uses to leave the body. The leading cause of kidney stones is lack of water. Stones commonly have been found in those that drink less than the recommended eight to ten glasses of water a day. When there is not enough water to dilute the uric acid, the ph level within the kidneys drops and becomes more acidic. An excessively acidic environment in the kidneys is the outcome to the formation of kidney stones. Kidney stones are twice as common among males as females. Most people who experience kidney stones do so between the ages of 30 and 50. A family history of kidney stones can also increase the chances of developing them at some point in life. Once having a kidney stone the risk of the reoccurring is high if preventative action is not taken A kidney stone usually remains symptomless until it moves into the ureter. Some symptoms of kidney stones when they become apparent are
• Blood in urine.
• White blood cells or pus in the urine.
• Vomiting and nausea.
• Reduced amount of urine excreted.
• Burning sensation during urination.
• Persistent urge to urinate.
• Fever or chills if there is an infection.
Treating kidney stones is primary focused on symptom management. Passing a stone can be very painful. If a person has a history of kidney stones, they may be treated from home. If hospital treatment is needed the patient will be hydrated via an intravenous and anti-inflammatory medication will be given. narcotics are often given as medication in an attempt to make the pain of passing the stone tolerable. In some cases a urologist can carry out a shock wave therapy called lithotripsy, this is a treatment that will break the kidney stone into smaller pieces and allow it to pass. patients with large stones in placed that do not allow for lithotripsy may undergo surgical procedures. Preventing kidney stones can be as easy as staying hydrated.
Interstitial cystitis:
Interstitial cystitis also known as painful bladder syndrome is a chronic condition in which you experience bladder pressure, bladder pain and sometimes pelvic pain, ranging from mild discomfort to severe pain. Interstitial cystitis is a condition that results in recurring discomfort or pain in the bladder and the surrounding pelvic region. The symptoms vary from case to case and even in the same individual. Symptoms may include an urgent need to urinate, a frequent need to urinate as often as 40, 50,or 60 times a day, or a combination of these symptoms. Pain may change in intensity as the bladder fills with urine or as it empties. Women’s symptoms often get worse during menstruation. They may also sometimes experience pain during vaginal intercourse. Because interstitial cystitis varies so much in symptoms and severity, most researchers believe it is not one, but several diseases. Interstitial cystitis is more common in women than in men. An estimated 3.3 million U.S women or 2.7 percent, who are 18 years of age or older have pelvic pain and other symptoms. An estimated 1.6 million U.S men or 1.3 percent who are 30 to 79 years old have persistent symptoms, such as pain and other symptoms. Some of the symptoms of interstitial cystitis resemble those of bacterial infection, but medical tests reveal no organisms in the urine of people with interstitial cystitis, people with interstitial cystitis do not respond to antibiotics. Researchers are working to understand the cause of interstitial cystitis and to find effective treatments. Interstitial cystitis can be difficult to manage only about half of women with the disorder work full time. Their quality of life, research suggests, resembles that of a person on kidney dialysis or suffering from chronic cancer pain. The condition is officially recognized as a disability. There is no cure for interstitial cystitis , but many treatment offer some relief, either singly or in combination. Increasing awareness is helping to speed diagnosis of this condition and encourage research into how it develops. Surgery is rarely needed.
Bladder cancer:
The bladder is a hollow organ that collects urine from the kidneys through the ureters for storage and eventually secreted from the body through the urethra. Bladder cancer is the abnormal growth of bladder cells and is a common cancer. men have a higher risk of getting bladder cancer than women. The most common symptom of bladder cancer is blood or clots in the urine, pain during urination, urinating small amounts frequently and frequent urinary tract infections. Cigarette smoking is also a notable risk factor for bladder cancer, with smokers three to four times more likely to get the disease than non-smokers. The initial treatment for bladder cancer is to remove the tumour from the bladder through the urethra, this provides information regarding the stage and grade of the tumour. Bladder cancer is both staged and graded to both determine treatment and estimate prognosis for individual patients. Low grade superficial tumours are treated with chemotherapy medication in the bladder to reduce recurrence rates. These tomours have high recurrence rates but a very low chance of progression to higher stages, high grade tumours have high chances of recurrence and progression and may need additional treatment in form of BCG or chemotherapy instillation in the bladder. Patient unresponsive to these may be best treated by removal.
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