Nigeria, a West African country with a population of about 170 million people has witnessed several terrorist attacks since 2003. Nigeria is a multi-ethnic country with different religious groups. The country is made up of both Muslims and Christians with Muslims more in the north and Christians in the south1. For many decades Nigeria has witnessed various forms of violent conflicts. In recent times the activities of a group known as Boko Haram in Northern Nigeria has become the major source of crisis and fear in the country2. This group has been designated a terrorist organization3. The activities of Boko Haram are mainly focused on Borno State and neighboring countries such as Cameroon, Chad and Niger4. In April 2014, it became a very popular internationally after it abducted over 200 schoolgirls from the northern town of Chibok. Over the course of 2014 alone, over 5,000 people were killed in Boko Haram related violence as the group demonstrated new, more deadly tactics in order to increase casualties5.
About 13,000 people are estimated to have been killed in Boko Haram-related violence6, making it one of the dangerous terrorist groups in the world. It is estimated that more than 6 million Nigerians have been affected by the conflict between Boko Haram and the Nigerian government, and more than 300,000 have been displaced. It has spread across the mainly Muslim north and central Nigeria. With the attacks becoming increasingly sophisticated, there is growing concern that Boko Haram is receiving backing from al-Qaeda-linked militants in other countries7.
Notable among the gruesome activities of this group are attacks on churches and other public places resulting in the death of many civilians. Since Boko Haram is viewed as an Islamic fundamentalist group, the nefarious activities of the group against Christians are capable of igniting violent conflicts between Christians and Muslims8. The group’s April 2014 abduction of over 200 schoolgirls has drawn international attention. Periodic attacks against foreign targets in the region and growing evidence of ties to Al Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb (AQIM) have also raised the concern of U.S. policymakers9. Many civil society organizations have expressed their concern over the activities of the Boko Haram group towards Christians and other Nigerians, calling on the Nigerian government to more urgently and effectively bring an end to the crisis.
This article examines the history, and effects of Boko Haram insurgency in Northern Nigeria. It also discusses the role of civil society in preventing the escalation of the crisis into a battle between Christians and Muslims. Specifically the article examines the role of the Christian Association of Nigeria (CAN) and other religious bodies in the prevention of the escalation of the crisis. Data were collected from primary and secondary sources. The source of primary data is key informant interviews. Secondary data were collected from magazines, newspapers, textbooks and journal articles. The article will provide useful information to policy makers in Nigeria, regional organizations in Africa, and policy makers in countries experiencing inter-religious conflicts.
Clarification of Major Concepts
This section clarifies the concept of civil society and Boko Haram. According to Fatton, ‘civil society is the private sphere of material, cultural, and political activities resisting the incursions of the state’ 10. Civil society is also defined as the sphere of organized social life that is open, voluntary, self-generating, at least partly self-supporting, independent from the state, and guarded by a legal provision or set of shared rules. Civil society is different from society in that it involves the citizens acting jointly in a public realm11. On the part of Bratton, ‘civil society refers to the advent of new patterns of political participation outside of the formal state structures and one party system’ 12. Similarly, Dwayne13 espoused the view that civil society is an all-embracing term that refers to social occurrence assumed to be beyond the formal state structure, but essentially free of all interaction with the state. Civil society includes a vast array of organizations, which are formal and informal in nature. These include: cultural, economic, educational, interest based and civic-seeking in non-partisan manner to improve political system14. The main functions and significance of civil society is that it provides a forum for the citizens ‘to express their passions, interests, ideas and preferences, to exchange information, to achieve collective goals, to make demands on the state, and to hold the state officials accountable15. However, it is pertinent to know that the different groups that constitute civil society do not have equivalent political and economic power that may be deployed to influence the policies and actions of government16.
Boko Haram
Boko Haram group formally calls itself Jama’atul Alhul Sunnah Lidda’wati wal Jihad which means people dedicated to the spread of the Prophet’s teachings and Jihad17 . The expression ‘Boko Haram’ is originated from one Hausa word Boko which means book and an Arabic word Haram which means sin or forbidden. Generally, the expression portrays western education or anything associated with western development as sinful and forbidden18. It is important to note that one could argue that this is an extreme interpretation and that the real grievance of members of the Boko Haram group is the corruption associated with people who benefit the most from ‘Western’ education. In the same vein, Abdulkarim Mohammed, a researcher on Boko Haram, added that violent revolts in Nigeria are generally due to “the fallout of frustration with corruption and the problems of poverty and unemployment”19. Some other scholars are of the view that the motive of Boko Haram supporters is to replace modern state structure with the traditional Islamic state, because Western values run contrary to that of Islam20. They believe that problems in the society is as a result of the acceptance of Western ideas, and in order to curb such evil an Islamic society must be established by destroying modern state institutions. The ideology goes hand in hand with the introduction of the Shari’a law in the society21.
In a study conducted by Centre for Naval Analyses (CNA), it was asserted that Boko Haram is a local radical insurgent group which uses subversion, guerilla tactics, and terrorism to achieve its goals. Its ultimate objective is to replace the existing political system by overthrowing and replacing the existing secular Nigerian state with an Islamic government. The study ruled out the idea that Nigeria is presently in a state of civil war. It also refuted the notion that Boko Haram is a Nigerian branch of another international terrorist organization, such as Al-Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb (AQIM). Boko Haram is an insurgent group which is sustained by localized grievances and conflict dynamics22.
The Nigerian State and the History of Boko Haram
The terrorist activities of Boko Haram have increased the insecurity problem in Nigeria. That is why in March 2014, United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, Ms. Navi Pillay, asserted that Nigeria is ‘currently facing its most daunting set of challenges for decades23.’ The current insecurity challenge in Nigeria is not a day-old problem but a cumulative effect of unresolved or poorly managed situations. Ogunyemi making reference to Frantz Fanon’s dimensions of violence argues that any attempt to explain the emergence of security problems in Nigeria must recognize the physical, structural and psychological violence unleashed on the people over the years by a tiny class of oppressive and manipulative rulers of the Nigerian state24. The history of Boko haram can be traced to Muhammed Marwa. He was an Islamic intellectual who moved from Marwa in Northern Cameroun to the city of Kano in 1945. He was interested in purifying the practice of Islam. He felt that transformation in modern societies as a result of the introduction of Western education has contaminated the practice of Islam. He engaged in abusive and provocative preaching. Between 1972 and 1979 Marwa was incarcerated several times for his confrontational preaching and acts of disorder against the state 25.
The history of the current upsurge of Boko Haram activities can be linked to Mohammed Yesuf who was born on January 29, 1970. He studied the Qur’an in Chad and Niger Republic. While in the two countries, he developed radical views that were abhorrent to Westernization and modernization. Like the Mohammed Marwa, Yusuf came back to Nigeria and settled in Maiduguri and established a sectarian group in 2001 known as the Yusufiyya. The sect was able to attract many members across Northern Nigeria as well as in Chad and Niger Republic. Yusuf began his radical and provocative preaching against other Islamic scholars such as Jafar Adam, Abba Aji and Yahaya Jingir and against established political institutions26.
Effects of the Boko Haram Crisis on Civil Society in Nigeria
The activities of the Boko Haram group have affected Nigerians and foreigners in different ways. For example the abduction of over 200 female students in Government Secondary School in the town of Chibok in Borno State, Nigeria on the night of April 14-15, 2014 has been a cause for concern to both Nigerians and the international community. Human Rights Watch observed that over 25, 000 people have been killed in the country since 1999 and events since the start of 2014 have reached unprecedented levels27. The United Nations and Nigerian officials report that more than 6 million Nigerians have been affected by the conflict between Boko Haram and the Nigerian government, and more than 300,000 have been displaced. Nigeria’s heavy-handed response to Boko Haram’s insurgent and terrorist operations has also taken a toll on civilians and complicated U.S. efforts to pursue greater counterterrorism cooperation with the Nigerian government, in spite of shared concerns about Boko Haram and its ties to regional and international terrorist groups and operatives28.
Boko-Haram activities have adverse effects on the social and economic life of people in Nigeria especially those living in the North East. It has crippled educational activities in most parts of Adamawa, Bornu and Yobe states. The insurgents have invaded primary and secondary schools, killing scores of children and their teachers in savage attacks unknown in modern history. In the mix of this insecurity, parents have to withdraw their children and wards, some undergraduates of higher institutions in the states affected have also sought admissions in equivalent schools in the south. Governments have been forced to also close down some of the schools in the most notorious areas that the sect has major hold. This has worsened the illiteracy rate in a region where illiteracy rate is as high as 80 percent, with many children roaming the streets. Boko-Haram crises and anti-insurgency operations and general insecurity had uprooted or displaced over 6000 people in north-eastern Nigeria. The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) maintained that 6,240 people have taken refuge in Niger Republic for safety reasons. Others from Adamawa have also crossed over to Cameroun and Chad republics since the crises started in 200929. Additionally, the state of emergency in the North-East of Nigeria and the accompanying military operations in that part of the country have adversely affected economic activities generally, including agricultural production and food prices as well as consumer demand. The insurgency and the fight against it by the government have the potential of crippling the economy of northern Nigeria, and affecting economic growth30.
The Boko Haram crisis has also affected the activities of religious organizations in Northern Nigeria. For example, the Young Men Christian Association (YMCA) noted the effects of Boko Haram on religious activities. There are 13 local YMCA branches in Northern Nigeria. Though, there has not been any direct attack on any YMCA structure, but some of the YMCA members have indirectly been affected by the frequent uprisings caused by Boko Haram. Consequently, these incessant attacks have instilled fear and insecurity in the minds of the YMCA members. This sense of insecurity has reduced the activities of the YMCA. For example, in 2010, the Easter Youth camps organized by the Northern Zone were moved to a neighbouring state that seemed safer compared to Jos where the National Leadership Training Centre the usually venue is located. In 2011, another camp was cancelled because parents were not willing to send their children because of the fear of the unknown. In the 2012 Easter camp there were few participants because of fear due to speculations about erupting violence during the Easter celebration31.
The military approach to curbing the activities of Boko Haram has also affected civil society negatively. The Nigerian government established a special Joint Task Force (JTF), known as Operations Restore Order (JTORO). According to Agbiboa, ‘the President ordered some 8,000 soldiers to the region in a direct military offensive against Boko Haram members’32. However, far too often, members of the JTF have been accused of killing innocent people in the name of counter-terrorism. In Borno State, for example, the JTF resorted to extralegal killings, dragnet arrests, and intimidation of the unfortunate Borno residents33. Solomon also asserted that instead of ‘conducting intelligence-driven operations, the JTF simply cordoned off areas and carried out house-to-house searches, at times shooting young men in these homes’ 34. In a series of interviews with residents in the city of Maiduguri, Human Rights Watch reported that, during raids in communities, often in the aftermath of Boko Haram attacks, members of the security forces have killed men in the presence of their families; indiscriminately arrested or beaten members of the community; burned houses, shops, and cars; stolen money while searching homes; and, in at least one case, raped a woman35. Commenting on the activities of the Joint Task Force, Marchal opined that ‘the Nigerian state apparatus ‘kills even more civilians than Boko Haram does’36.
Responses of Civil Society to the Boko Haram Crisis
Several civil society organizations have responded in different ways to the persistent Boko Haram attacks in Nigeria. For example, the Arewa Consultative Forum (ACF), the umbrella social-cultural organization for northern Nigeria has made appeals to Boko Haram insurgents to stop their destructive activities. In addition to regular appeals, ACF organized a peace conference in 2011 to address the security challenges posed by Boko Haram. Also in Northern Nigeria, the Inter Faith Partners for Peace & Development Initiative (IFPPDI) works with the aim of promoting peaceful coexistence between different ethnic and religious communities in northern Nigeria, especially in Kano state. The organization makes effort to address ethnic and religious crises within Nigeria, particularly in the north through religious inter-faith teachings, workshops, symposiums and public lectures in order to encourage religious leaders to always deliver peaceful sermons37. In spite of the efforts of civil society organizations to prevent the escalation of the crisis especially revenge by Christians, some Christians especially youths have reacted violently in some instances. For example in June 2012, the perceived inability of the government to curtail the activities of the Boko Haram group following several attacks on churches made some Christian youths to engage in violence against Muslims. It was reported that about 35 persons were injured and 7 killed38.
Since many attacks by Boko Haram insurgents are on Christians, it would have been possible for the crisis to become a battle between Christians and Muslims. For example after the abduction of the Chibok girls and the release a video on May 12, 2014 claiming that the abducted Chibok girls were converted to Islam, the Christian Association of Nigeria (CAN) stated that Boko Haram activities have become war against Christianity. This section of the article examines the efforts and responses of religiously related civil society organizations including the Christian Association of Nigeria in preventing the situation from becoming a fight between Christians and Muslims. The Christian Association of Nigeria (CAN) which was founded in 1976 was originally made up of the Catholic Church and mainline Protestant groups but later expanded to include Pentecostal churches. In other words; what role has CAN and other religious bodies played in preventing the Boko Haram crisis from escalating into a battle between Muslims and Christians? To answer this question, let us begin by considering some notable Boko Haram attacks on Christians and the responses of CAN.
One of the most serious attacks on Christians by the Boko Haram insurgents was the Christmas day bombing of churches in 2011. On this day a series of bombings occurred during church services in northern Nigeria on 25 December 2011. This occurred in places such as Madalla, Jos, Gadaka, and Damaturu. At least 37 people died and 57 others were injured in an attack at St. Theresa Catholic Church in Madalla, a satellite town of Abuja located 40 km (25 mi) from the city center. 39 Following these attacks, the President of the Christian Association of Nigeria states:
The Nigerian Nation and the international community have been witnesses to the step by step escalation of violence against innocent citizens with the Christian and the Church suffering the greatest loss. We have persistently pleaded with Government to take courage and act to stop the surge of terror. At this point in the unfolding insecurity challenges, it has become irrelevant whether the root cause is political, religious, ethnic or ideological. The fundamental issues are that the intimidation, killings, bombings and wanton destruction of lives and properties must stop immediately. As President of the Christians Association of Nigerian (CAN) my first call to all peace loving Nigerians is remain calm in the face of all the insecurity challenges as I am aware that the greater part of the overall design is to instill fear in the populace. I will now make final call to Nigerian Government to use all resources available to it to clearly define and neutralise the problem as other nations have done. The Church leadership has hitherto put immense restraint on the restive and aggrieved millions of Nigerian but can no longer guarantee such cooperation if this trend of terror is not halted immediately40.
The above statement of the President of CAN indicates one reason why Boko Haram attacks on Christians has not become a fight between Muslims and Christians. The emphasis of the association is not for Christians to retaliate, but a call to the government to prevent the reoccurrence of such attacks. This kind of response can to some extent prevent Christians from reacting violently, thus making the situation a conflict between Muslims and Christians. If CAN has persistently engaged in provocative statements that could incite Christians to fight against Muslims the situation could have been different. Sometimes when notable leaders of CAN make aggressive statements, some other members attempt to reduce tension by opposing such confrontational statements and encouraging Christians to pray for peace.
The youth section of CAN also played useful roles in reducing the escalation of the crisis. For example, the Kaduna chapter of the youth section of CAN) gave part of their praying grounds to their Muslims friends for prayers. Such inter-religious activities helped to foster peace between Muslims and Christians despite the activities of the Boko Haram group41.
The second reason why the situation has not become a conflict between Muslims and Christians is the response of the Sultan of Sokoto (the religious leader of Muslims in Nigeria) and other Islamic civil society organizations. For example, after several attacks by Boko Haram insurgents, the Sultan states that ‘there is no conflict between Islam and Christianity and I want to assure that we will do all we can in the best of our ability to solve the numerous problems confronting our country’ 42. In addition, when the Sultan was also told to comment on the general notion that Muslim religious leaders have not been vigorous enough in their disapproval to the violent acts, he stated:
Have we not been speaking out? Did you read the press statement I issued out the day before yesterday? What else do you want us to say? We are totally against what has been happening, we totally condemn all these. Nobody can take anybody’s life, its unIslamic, its ungodly, nobody can take anybody’s life, all lives are sacred, must be respected and protected by all. So we have been speaking out. We all know what the situations are and we can only advise the government and we have been advising the government on several occasions’ 43.
Like the Sultan, Muslim leaders in the country have always assured Christians that Nigerian Muslims were not at war with them, and that the activities of Boko Haram were contrary to Islamic teachings44. In the same vein, the Federation of Muslim Women’s Association in Nigeria (FOMWAN) led a protest against increasing Boko Haram casualties in April, 2014. The leader of the association condemned the continuous escalation of violent attacks on innocent lives and properties in different parts of Nigeria.
A third reason why the activities of Boko Haram insurgents have not become a fight between Christians and Muslims is the nature of Boko Haram attacks. This is the reason given by most key informants interviewed. To the key informants the failure of Christians to retaliate Boko Haram attacks is not mainly because of the efforts of CAN but because the attacks are directed towards different categories of individuals and organizations in Nigeria. One of the key informants mentioned that ‘Boko Haram insurgents attacked United Nations building in Abuja, Police Stations, and other public places, and as such Christians cannot view Boko Haram activities as an attack solely on them’. Another key informant also argued that:
The Christian Association of Nigeria (CAN) in Borno State has been weakened by indigenization and politicization. But more importantly, it has been rendered impotent by the Boko Haram (BH) insurgency as a result of the following: (1) BH’s shadowy nature which makes it difficult if not impossible to identify its members for discussion, dialogue or confrontation even if CAN wanted to; (2) the violent and ruthless nature of BH in killing any person, Christian or Muslim who was known to have said anything negative about it. For instance, the Borno State Secretary of CAN, Reverend Musa was brutally murdered; and (3) Of course, the fact that BH is heavily armed and organized to the point that even the state security forces are overwhelmed by it not to talk of CAN.
Generally, an atmosphere of fear pervades the whole of the North Eastern part of Nigeria such that people avoid open discussion and would only discuss privately with trusted friends and family members anything about BH. Even in churches, the general statement is ‘sai addua’,’ sai azumi’ meaning ‘pray’ and ‘fast.’ In other words, CAN in the affected states could hardly make statements or organize to dialogue with or confront BH.
Conclusion
This article has demonstrated that the activities of religious institutions such as the Christian Association of Nigeria and Muslim leaders contributed to the prevention of the Boko Haram crisis from escalating into a battle between Christians and Muslims. Although the general effects of the crisis on civil society is enormous, the pursuit of peace and the condemnation of the activities of the Boko Haram group even by adherents of the Islamic religion has made Nigerians especially Christians to have an accommodative disposition rather than a confrontational one. The general lesson from this article is that violent conflicts that have religious undertone can be prevented from escalating if adherents of other religions avoid violent confrontations and retaliation.
The Boko Haram crisis remains one of Nigeria’s most serious problems. The extent to which the problem is effectively handled by the Nigerian government and the international community will go a long way to determine the continued existence of Nigeria. Although the crisis has not escalated into a fight between Muslims and Christians, there exists the possibility of further escalation if effective strategies are not adopted and implemented. In the view of James Forest effective strategies should address both the terrorist threat of Boko Haram and the root causes of the grievances of the communities in which they operate. This is because no terrorist group has ever emerged in a vacuum45.