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Essay: John Keats: Intertextuality, Ideas and Art From the Romantic Era

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  • Published: 6 December 2019*
  • Last Modified: 18 September 2024
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  • Words: 1,500 (approx)
  • Number of pages: 6 (approx)

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The history of literary works show how styles and ideas of writing have changed overtime and how authors influential factors have changed due to prior events, such as the Romantic’s response to the Industrial Revolution. An important feature of this era is intertextuality, specifically in John Keats’s poetry, which was stimulated by the interrelationship between Grecian and English Revolution as similar historical, social, cultural and political aspects were established, demonstrating that the demonstrating that the “intellectual and artistic achievement” of Greek and Roman times have established the Western culture. These elements represent how texts are linked, interpreted and appreciated through intertextuality. John Keats, an influential Romantic poet, born in London,England on the 31st of October 1795, brought upon his dark exploration of eighteenth century matters and moralistic problems, understood through the intertextual links of Biblical allusions and classical Greek mythology.  Although these Classical Greek and Biblical allusions are many millennia apart, Keats’s cultural context expresses the common concerns and emotions being explored in the modernising world. John Keats’s most acclaimed poems, ‘ Ode to a Nightingale’,(published in July 1819 by  Annals of the Fine Arts), and ‘ Ode to a Grecian Urn’,(published January 1820, Annals of the Fine Arts) show the prevailing thematic concerns such as the realm of immortality and death, horror of death and flaws, nature of love and spirituality shown by bold beauty and opulence of John Keats artistic style.

An imperative romantic trait was the attraction to ‘other exotic cultures’ in a different time, notably the ancient Greek body of Mythology. According to Stephen Hebron,“The Classical world permeated almost every aspect of life, from political institutions and philosophical enquiry to scientific method and the basic forms of architecture”(15 May 2014),Transcendence was achieved through a revolutionary theorist,John Keats, who looked into Greco-Roman mythology to find solutions to the eighteenth centuries problems of revolution and destruction of nature, while searching for his own intellectual transcendence and escape from ever-changing society. Poetry was explored as which transcendence could be attained when reentering the ideals of Ancient Greece, due to the similar structure of activity in the time. John Keats defended the Ancient Greek expedient as it was seen as improper for pagan mythology to be chosen over Christianity in this time period, and instead Keats’s commended Greek mythology for its composure and integrity as it was perplexing, resembling the Industrial Era.  John Keats was apart of the Hellenistic period, where Hellenism refers to the ‘ interest for Greek culture and fine arts (poetry, music, painting, sculpture and architecture)’, in accordance to the National University of Modern Languages(July 27, 2017). Visibly, Keats’s was encouraged by Hellenism which was the foundation of his poetry, concluding of his Grecian aesthetic embellishment as he seemingly transports his own imagination to Ancient Greek times.

’Ode on a Grecian Urn’ was a complex response to a Urn. The poem is contemplating a paradox of the carved pictures, as the immortality of the Urn contests the mortality of human race, displaying that the Urn will have eternal existence while he is dead, and the Urn will remain through the ages of time.  ”They are free from time, but they are simultaneously frozen in time. ’’(SparkNotes Editors (2002)SparkNote on Keats’s Odes),for this statement represents the line from Stanza three,

  ‘’For ever warm and still to be enjoy'd,

  For ever panting, and forever young;’’.

Thus, figures do not have to encounter sadness or death, compared to real life individuals as they are ‘’forever young’’, but cannot confront physical experience shown in line ——

 ‘’ Bold Lover, never, never canst thou kiss

  Though winning near the goal—yet, do not

  grieve;’’

Time is forever frozen but —because of this the figures that are in love are destined for eternity, however they are never capable of their lust. ’’Yet, do not grieve;’’, is a paradox which inflicts to the Grecian lovers that they are lifeless and incompetent of grieving and ever kissing.  John Keats uses his imagination which provide the sense that the ‘‘timeless world of the urn is the perfection of life’’( Steven G.  Kellman.  eNotes. com, Inc.  2009), but in reality is contradictory of life and incomplete.

Revealed in the ambiguous final lines of the poem, a matter of personal interpretation is needed by the reader, as either the Urn speaks to Keats .

"Beauty is Truth, Truth Beauty,"—that is all

  Ye know on earth, and all ye need to know. ’’

For the Urn, “beauty is the only measure of existence” (Laurence W.  Mazzeno, Inc.  2010), as those cannot perceive the real world,” that in life, beauty is often deceptive and truth often ugly. ’’(Laurence W.  Mazzeno, Inc.  2010).  Readers figure that the last line is Keats’s response to the Urn, "all that people need to know on earth, and all they need to know. ”, additionally contradicts the entire poem. John Keats realises that — the urns beauty is truth and truth in the Urns perspective is adhered for the rest of eternity.  The urn is  "on earth,” for it is a segment of nature, but for mankind, ‘’truth is not limited to beauty’’(Fraser, G.  S. , John Keats: Odes, 1971).

The context behind Greek art and the ‘’belief in absolute perfection of form’’(John Bosco, 2012). The Urn determines the artistic importance of Greece , thence using ‘’Grecian’ in the title, influenced by artwork of Elgin Marbles(438BC), brought to London from Greece(1801). Elgin Marbles embody the admiration of human creativity, synchronously, the Marbles symbolise immortality versus morality.

‘’ Of marble men and maidens overwrought’’

The Elgin Marble men allude with the Urn, as figures endured history of the past without being prone to ‘dying’. Immersion of Greek art works from Ancient Greece strengthen the British literature culture as John Keats illustrates imagery that originates from the Greek culture to epitomise the significance of beauty.

‘’ In Tempe or the dales of Arcady?’’

Tempe is a valley in Greece, known for cold overshadow, while Arcady is known for great beauty. Allusions show Greeces subliminal features to be established ideas of John Keats’s of idealistic beauty.  Keats represents the Grecian culture in marriage,

‘’Who are these coming to the sacrifice?

  To what green altar, O mysterious priest,’’

The green altar provides the reader with an image, where as the sacrifice is a figurative image, showing that the art captures lasting happiness but also lasting misery. ‘Mysterious priest’ is an allusion to greek mythology to the priest of Hera, wife of Zeus and queen of ancient Gods, marriage and family.  This allusion offers an explanation of the ancient Grecian culture, where Hera ordained weddings. Grecian cultural practice included that a cow must endure scarification to ensure a blessing of those wedded, ‘’this is a common feature of Greek religion’’(MacEachen, Dougald B. CliffsNotes).

’ Ode to a Nightingale’ is an emotional response to the melancholy sound of the Nightingale, common to the  Ancient Greek legends. As Keats feels continual joy and relaxation, despite the conflicting emotions of ecstasy, ephemerality and mortality.The central idea behind ‘Ode to a Nightingale’ emphasises the birds eternal happiness of life, but makes Keats low as he is unaccompanied and exploring the mortality of life. Keats’s drunken imagination is now subduing to the realism of the world.

‘’Where palsy shakes a few, sad, last gray hairs,

Where youth grows pale, and spectre-thin, and dies;

Where but to think is to be full of sorrow’’

The third stanza exemplifies the world as unruly, as moral issues are able to undermine creativity of individuals as they begin to have no control whilst opposing time, as neither love or beauty can be eternal.This elucidates that the world leads to oppressive concerns, and there are no ways of thought that can inflict eternal peace.Keats’s longing is to slip away from the moralistic world into the captivating mind of the bird, depicting the ‘tragedy of human life’ (Shrestha, Roma.11 Nov. 2013), manifesting Keats’s belief in cynicism and despondency, comparing the Nightingales happiness against his own.

‘Ode to a Nightingale’  features the Nightingale as a symbol of love, liberation and immortality.The nightingales sound is contradictory to the contrivance of individuals imagination; such as art, music and poetry, which requires no such analysis to be appreciated as the Nightingale evolves the power from its purity.Greek Mythology has influenced this poem thoroughly, as the story Philomela, a young Grecian lady was transformed into a Nightingale by the Gods, after being raped and her tongue cut off. Greek mythology and evolution has emulated a cultural conversion in perception of beauty and nature.Another allusion,

That thou, light-winged Dryad of the trees

reciprocates the thematic concern of mortality through the Greek mythology of a ‘’dryad’’, which were female spirits attached to natural features of the earth; when a tree died, the spirt attached dies too.Displaying that the Nightingale is supposedly immortal,

Thou wast not born for death, immortal Bird!

is the drastic symbolism to delicate the Nightingales soft melancholy eternally echoes through the past and present, and remains after death.

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