This project looks at the castles of the United Kingdom; in particular, how and why the design of castles changed and why castles became obsolete over time. It will focus on the use that castles had when they were built, and why they no longer fulfil this role today. Additionally, it will look at any role or purpose that they may have in the modern world. The project will explore the uses of castles in detail and look at the specific, distinct design features which helped to adapt them to their use. Castles were places of safety which demonstrated power and created fear and admiration.
Each castle is individual and different despite their similar purposes. Their designs are influenced by many factors including the time they were built and the land that they were built on. Castles needed a working water supply. They were often built on rocky outcrops as a natural base, allowing observation over a wide area and making them difficult to attack. Exploring and researching each castle can reveal its unique story. There have been several significant design changes throughout the history of castle building in this country, for example motte and bailey, shell keep and concentric castles.
‘How to Read Castles’ (Hislop, 2013) is one example of a book that looks in detail at the features of various castles. Hislop says that castles are “gaunt relics of obsolete societies, yet they raise in us a frisson of excitement as we spy their dilapidated yet dignified remains rising above the surrounding landscape.” (p. 6) This demonstrates that castles are an important visible part of our heritage today and are still looked upon in awe.
This topic is important and relevant as castles remain interesting and stimulating. Castles are major visitor attractions visited by many people every year, for example Beaumaris Castle alone is visited by over 90,000 people each year. Their individual histories are intriguing and compelling to many people. There is much captivating history surrounding castles and researching them in depth will help to uncover intriguing facts about them and will help to understand them. Some people in more recent times have become so fascinated by the nature of castles that they have chosen to recreate them, for example Penrhyn and Balmoral are both designed to look like older castles.
The different stages in the design of castles and their eventual fall can be seen as a series of responses to changing technologies and society; castles had to keep up with the rest of the world in order to remain relevant.
Castles are a form of defensive fortification which have been around for hundreds of years (the main period of castle-building being between 900AD and 1500 in Europe). As time has gone by, the designs and the uses of castles have changed significantly. Historically, they have loomed over their surrounding landscapes, symbolising dominance, power and wealth. Each castle is different, but they can be organised into distinct categories and their designs can tell us about the time in which they were built and the castle’s main purpose (Hislop, 2013).
Pre-medieval castles (100 BC- AD 79):
There was some castle building in this country before the Norman Conquest of 1066, but it was not widespread. Before there was adequate technology to allow for the building of castles, defending areas of land (for their safety and resources) was still important. At this time, forts were the best way to defend an area, so were widely used by both Celtic tribes and the conquering Romans.
Hill forts are a form of ancient earthworks which were used as defended settlements; these were built upon hills and followed their contours, there was often more than one line of earthworks which helped to defend the plateau area at the top of the hill (heritagedaily.com, 2017). Maiden Castle (built 1st century BC) is an example of an iron age hill fort, there are earthworks surrounding an area of approximately 120 acres, the fort was destroyed by the Romans in AD 43 (Palmer and Reader’s Digest Association, 1994).
The Romans built many forts across the country to defend their rule here. The Romans established a camp in Chester in AD 79, to defend the land around the River Dee (Leapman, 2000). The city of Chester grew out of the Roman fort of Deva, the historic centre is enclosed by the sandstone Roman walls; medieval fortifications were later added to these (Illustrated Encyclopedia of Britain, 1999). Roman forts were much smaller than medieval castles.
Norman Castles in England (1066-1100):
The first time when castle building became wide spread across the country was after the Norman Conquest; led by William the Conqueror, the Normans built castles so that they could defend the land which they had taken over and prevent revolt. The majority of early Norman castles were the Motte and Bailey style. The castle building was built on top of a large, artificially created mound of earth (Motte); at the base of the motte was a walled courtyard known as a bailey, the bailey contained several buildings which were used to keep the castle running (forge, barracks, stable etc.: The History learning site, 2015). Baileys were sometimes protected by a ditch or moat. The castles acted as a symbol of Norman strength and power as well as allowing them to keep watch over the surrounding land. French kings had gained a reputation for building castles in the eleventh century which defended their lands from Viking invaders, William the Conqueror continued this tradition in England (The History learning site, 2015). It is possible that William’s widespread castle building popularised the castle with later leaders in this country, leading them to continue building them in the following centuries- his influence greatly affected castle building in this country.
The earliest Norman castles were constructed from wood (rather than stone) as this was the cheapest, most accessible material available at the time. The Normans were not always able to build out of stone, and it was quicker to construct out of wood; they had to wait for technology to help them move stone and construct large buildings quickly and effectively with it. Stone was a stronger material than stone, lasted much longer and was not vulnerable to being burnt down- the arrival of trebuchets that could throw burning missiles was a major risk to wooden castles (Trueman, 2015). Therefore, stone gradually replaced wood as the main building material for castles as advances in construction technology allowed this.
The oldest part of Windsor castle is an example of a motte and bailey. William the Conqueror began to build Windsor Castle in 1070, it was built as part of a chain of castles around London and is situated at a naturally defensive site in the Thames valley (Marsden, 2012). Windsor Castle was originally built in the standard early Norman way (motte and bailey) but unusually had two baileys (which now form the upper and lower wards); the castle’s main purpose was to secure the western route into London but its position also meant it could act as a royal residence (Marsden, 2012). The castle’s Round Tower now occupies the location of the original Norman fort- it still stands on a large motte. Although the main purpose of this castle has changed significantly, it is still useful as a working royal residence. This is just one example that shows how not all castles are obsolete in the modern world, there are still many castles which are lived in (including Alnwick and Balmoral).
Originally, castles had two main functions. Firstly, as fortifications with defensive and offensive aspects and as homes to the aristocracy. This mix of functions influenced the design of many castles as the architect had to consider a building being well-fortified and being a working residence; the balance between the need to be a strong fortification and the need to be a comfortable home were different for each castle, especially in different areas (Hislop, 2013). Therefore, most castles are architecturally unique. Looking around the remains of castles and searching for clues can allow us to determine the main function of a particular castle. Defence was extremely important as the country was unstable in medieval times, and castles were strong, allowing their occupants safety and the power to rule over an area surrounding the castle. It was extremely difficult to take over a castle.
The Normans built a large number of castles across the country, there were several reasons for this. In these times, central control did not reach as far; therefore, castles were built for barons who would use them as control bases to rule over a smaller area, ensuring that the whole area remained firmly under control, they secured vital agricultural lands and food supplies. Furthermore, having many castles spread across the country allowed noblemen to travel more safely. Journeys took much longer in medieval times (the main mode of transport was through horses and carts), castles acted as safe and secure stopping points on these journeys. Some castles became obsolete as the country became more secure and fewer centres of control were required and journeys were much safer, manor houses became more suitable.
As technological advancements came about, motte and bailey castles became increasingly vulnerable to attacks (siege weapons posed a significant danger to the thin line of defence and many motte and baileys were wooden), consequently more complex and substantial designs became necessary to improve defence, technology made this easier to do. As a result, a new stage in the design of castles began- the Norman keep tower. These were large, square towers made from stone (rather than the timber used in the boundary walls of baileys), they had extremely thick walls (The History Learning Site, 2015). The main structures of many Norman keeps are still standing today; this demonstrates how strong they were as defensive fortifications.
The White Tower at the Tower of London is one example of a Norman keep tower. It was built by William the Conqueror soon after the Norman Conquest. Within the old Roman walls of London, the tower demonstrated William’s political power- it acted as a palace, whilst also being a strong fortification; it showed that William was firmly in charge and staying (Hislop, 2013). The White Tower is a classic, square keep shape, it is also tall with thick walls and has turrets in each corner (which originally provided an extra defensive position). The White Tower was one of the largest and most impressive Norman keeps of its time; the fact that William chose to have such a large, fortified tower may suggest an element of fear that he was going to be overthrown (such large, stone castles were rarely seen in England at this time: Morris, 2012). Because of its central location (at the Norman power base, London was an important administrative centre) and how well fortified it became, the Tower of London became mainly used as a prison rather than a royal residence, it was only used as a residence on special occasions (Thompson, 1994). Many Norman castles have become disused as they are no longer useful or suitable for their original purpose, they often struggle to adapt to the changing world and are replaced by other buildings.
Later Medieval Castles (c. 1260-1485):
In later medieval times, artillery developed significantly, this new form of weapon made older castles more vulnerable to attack, therefore castle builders had to respond by designing castles in a different way that would help to protect them. The castles which were most at risk were upgraded with bulwarks (extra defensive walls: Hislop, 2013). However, newly built castles considered cannon power in the original building stages. Many castles were made shorter in profile so that they were less of a target; outer walls were constructed in order to provide an extra barrier against attack, they also allowed for extra space to return fire (Hislop, 2013). Also, castles were designed in a more logical and organised manner, positions of certain features were more carefully considered to make the best use of them. Furthermore, many castles were no longer built with square towers, these were replaced by round towers which were much less susceptible to attack (they were able to deflect ranged attacks more easily). These changes helped to keep the castles as strong defensive and offensive fortifications.
There was a large amount of castle building in North Wales in the thirteenth century, as King Edward I of England attempted to subdue Wales to his power. He wanted to build an iron ring of castles; these castles were built as strong forts which aided him in his desire to conquer Wales (Grant et al, 2011). Often, these castles were built on rocky outcrops which provided a base for the building as well as being easily defendable and giving a wide view of the surrounding area. The most notable of these castles were Beaumaris, Harlech, Conwy and Caernarfon (which are now UNESCO world heritage sites). These castles were the most developed that had been seen in this country. They were built to be unbreakable and to allow the king to demonstrate his power and control over Wales.
Designs also changed significantly as people began to use specialist architects to design castles, they had much more logical and well thought out plans. James of St George was Edward I’s principal castle builder, he was directly responsible for twelve of Edward’s seventeen castles in Wales; throughout his life, he perfected the design of the concentric castle with Beaumaris (Thomas, 2009), making Edward I a strong leader. Architects employed thousands of people to help build castles and created much more complex designs. The use of master architects had a huge impact, the scale of castles was increased, with thousands working on building them- how the castle would function was carefully considered and made to fit in with the design.
Caerphilly castle (built in the late thirteenth century) is the largest medieval castle in Wales and would have been a very strong defensive fortification. The castle was built by Edward I to defend the land against Llewelyn, Prince of Wales who refused to pay homage to the king (Davis, no date). The castle has thick, concentric walls and is surrounded by a moat and outer defences, making it a very difficult to attack. The castle has tall round towers at the corners which look out over the surrounding area and there are large, twin gatehouses on either side of the east and west sides of the castle (Davis, no date). The castle also has a long outer wall and other outer fortifications. These outer fortifications, the concentric layout and the tall, round towers demonstrate how architects responded to new threats by incorporating new features into castles.
Caernarfon (built 1283) is another of Edward’s castles in Wales, this was not as powerful defensively as other castles (such as Beaumaris and Harlech), but was architecturally very impressive and intended as a seat of power (Mersey, n.d.). The castle was intended to evoke thoughts of Constantinople (capital of the East Roman Empire: Hislop, 2013) with its octagonal (rather than round) towers and banded stonework. The intention was to create an image of imperialism, showing the Welsh that Edward I was firmly in charge.
Beaumaris Castle (Anglesey, building began in 1295) was designed as the perfect concentric castle but unfortunately was never finished. Beaumaris castle is a low-lying castle close to the Menai Strait. It was left unfinished and lower than intended, giving it a rather squat profile overall; this profile is emphasised by the square layout and double line of walls, which is Beaumaris’ most unique and notable feature. It is a well-preserved example of the perfect concentric castle (Pettifer, 2000). The setting of Beaumaris (on a flat marsh) allowed for the building of a perfectly symmetrical castle with an inner ward bordered by drum towers and two identical gatehouses all surrounded by an impressive outer wall and a full moat; at points, almost three thousand men worked to construct Beaumaris but Edward’s vision was never realised (Morris, 2012). Furthermore, Beaumaris’ location meant that it became a significant port, the castle had its own dock, supplies could easily be brought to help build the castle and also to defend Anglesey, it was both accessible and defendable (Taylor, 1986). This also meant that the castle had an extra layer of defence (it was difficult to attack from the sea) and it had a plentiful water supply, which was essential to the running of a castle.
Edward I’s castles in Wales can be seen to have had successes as well as failures. They did help to keep Wales under control and prevented it from rebelling; however, they did not fulfil Edward’s vision of becoming great royal residences (Morris, 2012). Great, luxurious halls were never finished despite the enormous amounts of money spent on them and royal guests usually preferred their comfortable English houses (Morris, 2012). Welsh castles were replaced by manor houses which were more suited to the changing society, these castles became largely abandoned and fell into disrepair- they were no longer necessary for either of their original purposes (as Wales was under control and more comfortable homes were available). This is one way in which castles have become obsolete, such ambitious castles were never built again.
Castles built by the native Welsh were often different to the castles built by the English and the Normans. They are not as large or overbearing, and were designed much more simply; they used the Welsh landscape to aid defence, they were often isolated and built on rocky cliffs (Hull, 1995). Dolbadarn Castle (constructed c. 1255), was built by the Welsh to defend Snowdonia, it has a 15m high round keep tower with two adjoining walls and two smaller towers; it was destroyed by the English in 1284 (Davis, no date).
Castles as Homes (1385-1642):
Castles became homes more than defensive and offensive fortresses largely because of changing technology and changes to society. New weapons (such as powerful artillery) meant that people were not willing to put as much faith in the strength of castles as they had done previously. Siege warfare was largely replaced by open battles on battlefields to claim advances in land, these battles were often quick and decisive; castles were not used to defend areas as their strength could not be trusted against more powerful weapons (Morris, 2012). Furthermore, there were less and less battles being fought within the country (due to it being more secure) making huge, expensive fortified castles largely unnecessary (Morris, 2012). As a result of this, less castles were built and those already in existence became disused; the castles that were built were designed firstly as functional homes which also had an impressive, fortified appearance.
Also, castles previously had to house many troops for battles across the country, this was no longer necessary in a more stable country. Therefore, castles did not need to be as large as they had been, they did not need to house and protect nearly as many people; only the house part of castles was useful, the rest was obsolete. As a result, many castles became smaller or were replaced by manor houses.
In the late medieval period, using castles to defend territory became less and less important in this country, society was much more stable (Hislop, 2013). Kings and queens fought less over controlling areas of land and people were less inclined to revolt. Therefore, a new type of castle began to appear, which was more like a fortified home than a purpose built military building (Morris, 2012). Despite this, many castles were still built with fortification features such as crenellations and portcullises; this was mainly for show, they made the castle seem important and more realistic (Hislop, 2013).
Bodiam Castle (East Sussex, built 1385) was one example of this new type of castle. At first glance it would appear to be a formidable fortress (with a large moat, towers and battlements); however, upon closer inspection there are large windows and the walls are not as thick many earlier castles- this is a castle designed to look tough but be more suitable for living in as its main purpose (Morris, 2012). Bodiam Castle would have been partly designed to impress its guests but would have struggled in a real siege (however it is one of the most fortified of these castellated houses).
Herstmonceux Castle (Sussex, built 1440) is essentially a courtyard manor house designed to look like a castle (by adding features such as towers, turrets and crenellations); the building has a drawbridge and an impressive moat but there is a distinct lack of defensive features you would expect to see on a castle at the time (mid-fifteenth century) such as gun loops all around (Thompson, 1994). In addition, the castle is laid out in a very ordered, regular, non-tactical manner and it is in a weak position (Hislop, 2013). Herstmonceux would have been impressive to any guests visiting it and could appear like it could survive a fight, but really this fortified appearance only makes a courtyard house appear more interesting. Herstmonceux attempts to recapture pride in the history of Britain by displaying the wonder of the castle and trying to make these great fortresses appear relevant to the people in the time it was built.
Fall of Castles (1300-1650):
The use of castles as fortresses declined throughout the later medieval period mainly because they were no longer needed. Castles which had been used previously fell into disrepair. Edward I’s castles in Wales soon became abandoned and became ruined in the late medieval period because their main purpose was as strong forts to defend an area of land- this was no longer required due to more peaceful times and changing warfare (Morris, 2012). Also, the castles were intended to host the guests of royalty (and regional powers who represented them) and act as grand palaces, but this vision never came true; for example, Beaumaris castle was never completed and so lacked this function as a grand palace (Morris, 2012). This meant that it was no longer suitable for either of its original purposes and it eventually became abandoned as an alternative to the massive expense of keeping it running for very little purpose.
While castles may not have been as formidable as they had been in earlier centuries, they still provided a stronghold for rebellion which was often difficult to retake. Therefore, many of those which were still strong were demolished, providing a sense of complete control for those in charge (Morris, 2012). Castles were then not rebuilt as although an already existing castle may have had use, it would not make tactical or economic sense to build new castles; battles were more effectively fought in other ways and the drawbacks of a castle outweighed its benefits.
Castles which had remained strong against the latest weapons and therefore posed a threat to the parliamentarians in charge following the English Civil War were demolished to remove the threat. Castles were a threat as, if they were recaptured by the royalists, they would gain a base which would allow them to exert power over an area, threatening parliamentary power. They had to be destroyed. One example is Pontefract Castle, this castle went on as a working castle for a long time; its old, medieval defences (built soon after the Norman Conquest) were upgraded (for example with new earthworks) so that it was still a useful fortress when it was besieged by the parliamentarians in the English Civil War in the seventeenth century (Morris, 2012). In 1649, the castle was held by the Royalists and was besieged by the parliamentarians. Pontefract was attacked by cannon and mortar; during this time, the King was executed, the Royalists lost hope and they surrendered (Morris, 2012). The castle had sustained lots of damage, but was still standing; the new parliament chose to have the castle completely demolished (Thompson, 1994), therefore removing a sign of resistance and any chance of losing control of this area.
However, not all castles have been destroyed or fallen into ruin and there are some which are still used as they were many years ago. One of the most notable examples of one of these castles in this country is Windsor Castle. Today it is one of the official residences of the Queen and is being used increasingly, the Queen stayed at Windsor for 159 nights in 2015 (Rayner, 2015). Windsor castle is the oldest and largest inhabited castle in the world, with over 160 people living there and over 200 working in it throughout the year; the castle remains a functioning royal residence with grand state apartments and is still a formidable fortress protected by many guards (Marsden, 2012). Windsor castle demonstrates how, despite being seemingly obsolete, uses can still be found for castles in the modern world (even if this is through links to an old system). Castles are relics of the past which we can learn from and find use for in the modern world.
Mock Castles (1600s and 1800s):
The end of the middle ages did not signify a complete end in the construction of castles; Ruperra Castle (in the hills around Cardiff) was built in the 1620s, it is roughly square with a tower at each corner (Kenyon, 2010). This was one of the first mock castles built in Wales.
Castles are capable of creating great nostalgia and many people, particularly in Victorian times, tried to recapture the past by creating mock castles. These were buildings which could be comfortably lived in, but had the appearance of a tough fortress.
Many of these nineteenth-century mock castles can be found in North Wales. Bodelwyddan is an example of a house that was castellated in the 1830s, it is designed in the style of a Norman castle; another mock castle is Penrhyn, which is dominated by its Norman style gatehouse (Kenyon, 2010). The existence of these mock castles suggests that they were still important to people in this era primarily to display status and wealth. Although very few mock castles are still built today, they show how the purpose and idea of a castle can be adapted to make it a comfortable house.
Conclusion:
The design of castles has changed significantly over their long history in response to several factors, particularly changes to society and technology. There have been a number of distinct stages in the design of castles, including hill forts, motte and baileys and concentric castles. Each design change has allowed the castle to remain relevant and valuable in that time, by improving the function of the castle and making it better suited to use.
Many of these design changes have been facilitated by new technologies, such as the ability to construct large buildings with stone (leading to stone replacing wood as the main building material for castles, as it is a much stronger material which was much more suited to purpose). The design of castles has also changed in response to these changing technologies, the development of siege weaponry meant that castles had to be more strategically designed and be able to withstand much more brutality.
Edward I’s castles in Wales are some of the most important castles in Britain. They are well-preserved examples of castle building in its prime, when their design was perfected and they were important in controlling different areas. Their World Heritage Site status reflects how important they are to British history and how amazingly designed they are.
After this, the role of castles changed; they were needed less for offence and defence (as the country was much more stable), and they were increasingly used as homes first, with their fortifications playing a less important role. This can be seen in their changing design. Bodiam castle looks like the perfect defensive castle, but on closer inspection (despite some capability) would struggle in battle. It is more a grand, fortified home to be admired by its guests. Following this, castles increasingly became homes with some fortification (such as Herstmonceux Castle).
Many castles have become obsolete as they have struggled to adapt to a changing society. Older castles were built primarily as defensive and offensive fortifications with housing as a secondary function; as more peaceful times came around and the way battles were fought changed (so that castles rarely came under attack), these castles had very little use- they became relics of the past.
Many other castles were destroyed following the civil war by the parliamentarians or if they were destroyed by an attack they were not rebuilt as they were no longer useful; some castles fell into ruin or disrepair. Therefore, in the sense of usefulness as forts, castles are obsolete today. The defensive and offensive capabilities of castles are unnecessary in today’s world.
However, many castles which are no longer useful are still largely intact; the public can visit these and learn about enthralling history across many centuries. Castles which are otherwise obsolete can still teach us about the past. Additionally, some castles (such as Windsor) are still lived in today by their historical owners and are still useful as homes to these people. Castles are often used as filming locations (such as Alnwick castle in ‘Harry Potter’).
Castles do not have a specialised use as they used to, so can be considered obsolete. However, they can still be used in the modern world to teach about history, to be lived in and to be used as filming locations; they are no longer needed for their original purposes, but we can still find some uses for them which mean that they are not completely obsolete.