ABSTRACT
The industries from Nasik are currently generating tonnes of oil contaminated cotton waste annually which seems to double in coming years. Small scale industries are throwing away or either burning it whereas medium and large scale industries are sending them for disposal hence they have to bare high disposal cost. The disposal practices carried out being land filling and incineration are causing adverse impact on environment. The oil contaminated waste being hazardous, the present investigation is to be focused on recycling waste in order to reduce environmental impact as well as solve the disposal issue. Briquetting is one such means which can help in minimization of waste. Briquetting involves collecting combustible materials that are not usable due to lack of density, compressing them into a solid fuel of a convenient shape that can be burnt like wood or charcoal. Its analysis is done and hence it can be served as a fuel for industrial purposes like heating, burning in boilers etc.
Keywords
Oil Contaminated Cotton Waste, recycling, disposal, briquetting, and fuel.
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
The increase in industrialization in India has also lead to increase in generation of industrial wastes. The major area of concern wrt industrial waste management is hazardous waste generated during various processes in industries. Due to variable processes, large quantities and types of hazardous waste are generated in industries. As per CPCBs report, it was estimated that in 2010 there were about 41,523 hazardous waste generating industries in India. The quantity of hazardous waste generated from these industries was about 7.90 million per year with increase of 27% over its last year generation and the similar or greater intensive trend was expected in future. Along with the generation, existing disposal facilities are overburdened to take additional load. Thus hazardous wastes are an emerging concern to a country like India. With increasing stringency in environmental legal requirements the hazardous waste disposal operation is becoming difficult and costly day by day.
The traditional disposal methods- land filling and incineration used in hazardous waste management exerts tremendous pressure on environment typically the ecosystem. These methods are responsible for generation of large quantity of green house gases that are responsible for global warming and increase overall carbon footprint. Also, incineration plants incorporate use of varied natural resources such as petroleum, natural gas, electricity etc that create burden on existing resources.
Thus, exploring recycling opportunity for industrial waste is need of time.
This study thus has chosen one major industrial hazardous waste viz. Oil contaminated cotton waste and will check the recycling opportunity of the same.
The focus is made on recycling of oil contaminated cotton waste generated from automobile industries of Nasik, a district located in state of Maharashtra, India.
SCENARIO OF OIL CONTAMINATED COTTON WASTE GENERATION IN NASIK
Nasik, a fast growing city is situated in Maharashtra India. The city has evolved drastically in industrial field since its inception. The city is vibrant and active on industrial upfront and has provided employment to many people and experiences immigrants from all over the country. It has major 5 MIDC areas namely Satpur, Ambad, Gonde, Dindori and Sinnar. Satpur and Ambad are situated in the city whereas Gonde, Dindori and Sinnar are surrounded by the city. Major category of industries belong to automobile (engineering) category and hence Nasik has one of the biggest sectors for automotive industry, manufacturing 2 wheelers, 3 wheelers and 4 wheelers and heavy vehicles.
Mahindra and Mahindra Ltd, Mahindra Sona Ltd, Bosch India, Thyssen Krupp Automotive Engines Ltd, are major automotive industries flourishing in this city. Thus their presence has attracted large number of vendors and hence Nasik is being considered as a hub of automobile manufacturing industries. Many vendors like Lear Automotive, JBM Auto Pvt Ltd, Shareen Auto Pvt Ltd, and Supreme Autoshell Pvt Ltd are manufacturing different automotive components for the bigger industries. Thus there are many small, micro, medium and large industries manufacturing vehicles parts, assembly and other parts contributing a large share of the total industries in MIDC area.
As manufacturing of automobiles takes place, the process requires large amount of oil like cutting oils, lubricating oils, engine oil, motor oils, spent oils, quenching oils etc. Also there are service centers for maintenance of vehicles and its allied parts throughout the city. Cotton cloth is used in cleaning those oils from machines, spills etc thus leading to generation of oil contaminated cotton waste. With the increase in demand of cotton waste, the question of disposal of cotton waste is of big concern.
Also used cotton waste comes under Hazardous waste category as mentioned by CPCB. Thus management of cotton waste should be done properly as far as safety is concerned.
To know the exact number of automobile industries as well as their contribution to oil contaminated cotton waste, a survey was conducted in MIDC area.
DATA SURVEY:
Data was obtained from Nashik Industries Manufacturing Association (NIMA) directory.
Part I
Data about number of industries in Nasik MIDC areas and they come under which category were obtained.
The data was summed up in percentage as shown below:
It was observed that Engineering sector comprised of 44 %. This was the highest among all other categories.
Engineering sector included automotive components, machining job work, heat treatment, forgings, abrasives, clamping equipments, tool room, rolling mills etc.
Figure No 1.1: Different categories of industries in Nasik
Part II
Out of the Engineering sector, bifurcation of sub components was made.
The data was summed up in percentage as shown below:
Automobile component was the highest (54 %) amongst others.
Automobile component specifically included fabrication, press components, allied automotive parts, and service centers.
Figure No 1.2: Sub components of Engineering Industries
Hence from the above data, it was clear that Nasik has major share of automobile sector and hence it was evident that these industries would generate oil contaminated cotton waste.
Part III
Out of these automobile industries a data survey was conducted for large and medium category industries.
Questionnaire
Name of Company
Name of Concerned person
Concerned Department
Location
Question Answer
1. Type of Industry
2. Manufacturing process
3. No of shifts in which the company is working
4. Quantity of oil soaked cotton waste generated per month
5. Disposal method
6.Any other data
Table No 1.1: Questionnaire
A questionnaire was made to find out generation of oil contaminated cotton waste from industries. Different industries were visited and inquiry about quantity of waste and its disposal was done. Majority of the industries who generated cotton waste belonged to automobile category. The data was recorded daily and monthly quantum of waste generated was provided.
Following is a summary of data collected:
The waste generated was basically oil contaminated cotton cloth, cotton gloves, rags etc.
MSDS was obtained for various oils used in different purposes.
Data regarding issuance of cloth before use (uncontaminated) and after use (contaminated) was recorded.
Line supervisors thoroughly checked the processes to avoid any case of spills and leaks.
The concerned EHS representative supervises and ensures the fulfillment of the hazardous waste management objective which is to identify, collect, handle, store and dispose of hazardous waste materials as per legal requirements.
The hazardous waste generated in the department is stored in red colored bins fixed at each department.
At regular intervals (weekly or monthly) waste is transferred to the scrap yard where the waste is placed in HDPE bags.
The monthly data consumption was noted for reference purpose.
At usually end of the month, the authorized hazardous waste collection party who is a member of CHWTSDF comes and collects the waste.
The oil contaminated cotton waste is sent either to scrap dealers for sale or to MWML- Mumbai Waste Management Limited at Taloja or to Maharashtra Enviro Power Ltd Ranjangaon Pune.
There is no on site recycling or disposal method of oil contaminated cotton waste in plant. A third party is responsible for its disposal.
After compilation of data it was noticed that large amount of waste was generated in the premises depending upon the size of the industry and the call for minimizing of waste should be taken.
Figure No 1.3: Oil Contaminated Cotton Waste generation per month
From the above figure, it was observed that large scale industries generated above 500 kg / month, medium scale industries generated between 50- 500 kg / month whereas small scale industries generated less than 50 kg/ month.
Figure No 1.4: A Pictorial view of Oil Contaminated Cotton Waste at an industry’s premises.
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
LITERATURE REVIEW
Hazardous Waste Management:
According to CPCB, hazardous waste is defined (HW) as any substance, whether in solid, liquid or gaseous form, which has no further use and due to physical, chemical, reactive, toxic, flammable, explosive, corrosive, radioactive or infectious characteristics causes danger or is likely to cause danger to health or environment, whether alone or when in contact with other wastes or environment, and should be considered as such when generated, handled, stored, transported, treated and disposed off. This definition includes any product that releases hazardous substance at the end of its life, if indiscriminately disposed off. HWs can be classified into – (i) Solid wastes (ii) Liquid wastes (iii) Gaseous wastes (iv) Sludge wastes from various anthropogenic sources An efficient Hazardous Waste Management protocol needs to be executed; other-wise it may cause land, surface and ground water pollution
Any product that releases hazardous substance at the end of its life, if indiscriminately disposed off is known as hazardous waste
Hazardous Waste Generation Scenario in India:
The hazardous waste generated in the country per annum is estimated to be around 4.4 million tonnes while according to Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) derived from correlating hazardous waste generation and economic activities, nearly five million tonnes of hazardous waste are being produced in the country annually. This estimate of around 4.4 million MTA is based on the 18 categories of wastes which appeared in the HWM Rules first published in 1989.Out of this, 38.3% is recyclable, 4.3% is incinerable and the remaining 57.4% is disposable in secured landfills. Twelve States of the country (Maharashtra, Gujarat, Tamil Nadu, Orissa, Madhya Pradesh, Assam, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Rajasthan) account for 97% of total hazardous waste generation. The top four waste generating states are Maharashtra, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. Whereas states such as Himachal Pradesh, Jammu & Kashmir, and all the North Eastern States excepting Assam generate less than 20,000 MT per annum.
Legislative Framework
Ministry of Environment & Forests (MoEF) promulgated Hazardous Waste (Management &
Handling) Rules on 28 July 1989 under the provisions of the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986. In September 2008, the said rules were repealed and new rules entitled “Hazardous Waste (Management, Handling and Transboundary Movement) Rules, 2008” (here after referred as HW (M, H & TM) Rules were notified. These rules were further amended in the year 2009 & 2010. According to the HW (M, H & TM) Rules, any waste, which by virtue of any of its physical, chemical, reactive, toxic, flammable, explosive or corrosive characteristics causes danger or is likely to cause danger to health or environment, whether alone or when in contact with other wastes or substances has been defined as „hazardous wastes_ and includes wastes generated mainly from the 36 industrial processes referred under Schedule – I of the said Rules. In addition, some wastes become hazardous by virtue of concentration limits as well as hazardous characteristics listed under Schedule – II of the said Rules. Based on the data provided by the State Pollution Control Boards
(SPCBs) and Pollution Control Committees (PCCs), Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) has compiled state-wise inventory of hazardous waste generating industries The hierarchy in management of hazardous waste is to reduce, reuse, recycle and re-process and final option of disposal of wastes having no potential for value addition, in disposal facilities in an environmentally sound manner. The disposal facilities may be having only a secured land fill (SLF) or may be having incinerator alone for organic wastes or combination of secured landfill & incinerator. At present, there are 26 common Hazardous Waste Treatment, Storage and Disposal Facilities (TSDFs) in operation spread across the Country in 12 States namely Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Himachal Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Punjab, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal as well as in UT namely Daman, Diu, Dadra & Nagar Haveli. 35 new sites for development of TSDF have been notified by the respective State Governments and these are at different stages of development.
The rules for Hazardous Waste Handling, Storage, Transport, Treatment and disposal are given in the chapter.
History of Biomass Briquetting in India
Since the beginning of the 1980s, three different types of briquetting technologies were introduced into India – PARU, Screw Extruder and Piston Press. PARU was a Korean based Briquetting machine. Between 1982 and 1986 seventy entrepreneurs bought the technology. Many of these plants became non functional within 3 months to 2 years of start up, and there are now none in operation. The high failure rate occurred due to the licensees’ using inferior materials in the construction of the equipment (to increase their profit margins) and altering design without consulting the developer. Lack of operating instructions, insufficient training of operators, and inadequate maintenance and management also contributed to the failure.
Entrepreneurs in south India imported twenty screw extruders from Taiwan. Although the briquettes were well accepted by the customers, there was excessive wear in the press due to the use of rice husk (a particularly abrasive material) as the feedstock. (Clancy, 2001)
The Screw Extruder is considered to be more appropriate to the Indian power supply situation since the down time associated with power disruption is significantly less than that for a piston press (half our compared to four hours). The disadvantage of this type of press is the higher investment costs compared to the piston press and the need for skilled welding to repair the screw. The piston press is the technology that has been most widely used on commercial basis in India with any degree of success. The technology was first introduced in
India in 1981 with the importation of a piston press produced by a Swiss company, Fred
Haussmann Corporation. Although a few more Haussmann presses were imported, there was no major importation since the costs were prohibitive. However, a number of manufacturers saw an opportunity of producing a product with a good market potential. In 1993, thirty five plants were identified using this indigenously manufactured equipment.
Research work carried out in the field of briquetting:
Sriram N, Sikdar D , Sunil Mahesh Kumar Shetty ( Nov 2014) presented on briquetting of cotton waste. In this research, cotton waste was used from Gomti Industry, Bangalore for making briquette and to get efficient energy by burning it. Solid waste from flour mill was used as binder. Here the compositions, compressive strength, calorific value, moisture content, thermal efficiency, proximate analysis of briquettes were analyzed.
Ch. A. I. Raju, M. Satya, U. Praveena and K. Ramya Jyothi (March 2014) studied the development of fuel briquettes using locally available waste. Teak leaves, sugarcane waste and cloth waste were taken to form briquettes. Flour was used as the binder. Briquettes were analyzed for its proximate and ultimate analysis. Comparison of the results showed that cloth waste briquette had high moisture content, low ash content and high calorific value. Teak leaves briquette had low moisture content, high ash content whereas sugarcane waste briquettes were the most stable amongst all. They can be recommended in small scale industries.
Madhurjya Saikia, Deben Baruah (2013), used teak leaves, rice straw, banana leaves for wet briquetting. Wet briquetting method was used to form these briquettes. Physical parameters like Briquette Durability Index (BDI), Impact Resistance Index (IRI) and calorific value was calculated. The results showed that durability increased with pressure whereas impact resistance was constant for all the briquettes.
V.R. Briwatkar, Y.P. Khandetod, A.G. Mohod and K.G. Dhande, studied the thermal properties of biomass briquetting fuel. Here mango leaves, acacia leaves, saw dust and dry cow dung was used. Proximate analysis of briquettes, degree of densification and thermal properties were studied. The results showed that the combination of 25:25:40 was of better quality fuel amongst others.
In similar way, varied amount of research is done on briquettes using different raw materials and its properties have been analyzed. These papers are cited in the references section
CHAPTER 3
THEORETICAL CONTENT
THEORY OF BRIQUETTING
A briquette (or briquet) is a compressed block of coal or other combustible biomass material such as charcoal, sawdust, wood chips, peat, or paper used for fuel and kindling to start a fire. The term comes from the French language and is related to brick.
Briquetting is the process of converting low bulk density material into high density and energy concentrated fuel briquettes.
Biomass densification represents a set of technologies for the conversion of biomass into a fuel. The technology is also known as briquetting and it improves the handling characteristics of the materials for transport, storing etc. This technology can help in expanding the use of biomass in energy production, since densification improves the volumetric calorific value of a fuel, reduces the cost of transport and can help in improving the fuel situation in rural areas. Briquetting is one of several agglomeration techniques which are broadly characterized as densification technologies. Agglomeration of residues is done with the purpose of making them denser for their use in energy production. Raw materials for briquetting include waste from wood industries, loose biomass and other combustible waste products.
On the basis of compaction, the briquetting technologies can be divided into:
High pressure compaction
Medium pressure compaction with a heating device
Low pressure compaction with a binder.
Depending upon the type of equipments used briquetting technologies can be divided into:
Piston Press Densification
It comes under high pressure compaction. There are two types of piston press: The die and punch technology and the other one is hydraulic press.
In the die and punch technology or also known as ram and die technology, biomass is punched into a die by a reciprocating ram with a very high pressure thus compressing the mass to obtain the briquette. The standard size of the briquette produced is of 60 mm, diameter. The power required by a machine of capacity 700 kg/hr is 25 kW.
The principle of operation is same as that of mechanical piston press. The main difference is that energy to the piston is transmitted from an electric motor via a high-pressure hydraulic system. The hydraulic press process consists of first compacting the biomass in the vertical direction and then again in the horizontal direction. The standard briquette weight is 5 kg and its dimensions are: 450 mm x 160 mm x 80 mm. The power required is 37 kW for 1800 kg/h of briquetting. This technology can accept raw material with moisture content up to 22%. The process of oil hydraulics allows a speed of 7 cycles/minute (cpm) against 270 cpm for the die and punch process. The slowness of operation helps to reduce the wear rate of the parts. The ram moves approximately 270 times per minute in this process.
2. Screw Presses Densification
The compaction ratio of screw presses ranges from 2.5:1 to 6:1 or can be even more. In this process, the biomass is extruded continuously by one or more screws through a taper die which is heated externally to reduce the friction. Due to the application of high pressures, the temperature rises fluidizing the lignin present in the biomass which acts as a binder. The outer surface of the briquettes obtained through this process is carbonized and has a hole in the centre which promotes better combustion. Standard size of the briquette is 60 mm diameter. Screw press can produce denser and stronger briquettes than piston press.
3. Roller Press Densification
In a briquetting roller press, the feedstock falls in between two rollers, rotating in opposite directions where the feedstock gets compacted into pillow-shaped briquettes. Briquetting biomass usually requires a binder. This type of machine is used for briquetting carbonized biomass to produce charcoal briquettes.
4. Pelletizing Densification
Pelletizing is closely related to briquetting except that it uses smaller dies (approximately 30 mm) so that the smaller products are called pellets. The pelletizer has a number of dies arranged as holes bored on a thick steel disk or ring and the material is forced into the dies by means of two or three rollers. There are two types of pellet presses: flat/disk and ring types. They produce cylindrical briquettes between 5mm and 30mm in diameter and of variable length. They have good mechanical strength and combustion characteristics. Pellets are suitable as a fuel for industrial applications where automatic feeding is required.
They can produce up to 1000 kg of pellets per hour but require huge capital investments and energy input requirements.
5. Manual Presses and Low pressure Densification
These machines are specifically designed for the purpose or adapted from existing implements used for other purposes. Manual clay brick making presses form one good example. They are used both for raw biomass feedstock or charcoal. Advantages of low-pressure briquetting are low capital costs, low operating costs and low skilled labor required to operate the technology. Low-pressure techniques are particularly suitable for briquetting green plant waste such as coir or bagasse (sugar-cane residue). The wet material is shaped under low pressure in simple block presses or extrusion presses. The resulting briquette has a higher density than the original material but still requires drying before it can be used. The dried briquette has little mechanical strength which may crumble easily.
Applications of Briquetting:
Briquettes have numerous applications like industrial and domestic use.
They are often used as a development intervention to replace firewood, charcoal, or other solid fuels. This is because with the current fuel shortage and ever rising prices, consumers are looking for affordable alternative fuels and briquettes fill this gap for:
Domestic uses like cooking and water heating.
Heating productive processes such as tobacco curing, fruits, tea drying, poultry rearing, distilleries, bakeries etc.
Clay products manufacturing in brick kilns, tile making, pot firing, etc
Fuel for gasifiers to generate electricity
Powering boilers to generate steam
In textile process houses for dyeing, bleaching etc.
Advantages of Briquetting:
Dependency on conventional energy sources like wood, coal is reduced
They are easy to handle, transport and store.
They are uniform in size and quality.
The process helps to solve the residual disposal problem.
Briquettes are cheaper than all conventional energy sources like coal, lignite etc which cannot be replenished.
There is no sulphur in briquettes. Thus atmospheric emissions and corrosion are prevented.
They have a consistent quality, high burning efficiency, and are ideally sized for complete combustion.
Raw materials are easily available, hence costs are reduced
Employment for many people.
Limitations of Briquetting:
In monsoon regions or when there is humid weather, briquettes may loosen and crack
Briquettes can be used only as solid fuel unlike liquid fuel which is used in internal combustion engines.
Combustion characteristics can be poorer depending upon the raw materials
CHAPTER 4
MATERIALS AND METHODS
MATERIALS AND METHODS
This project deals from preparation of mixture required for briquettes formation to analysis of briquettes thus formed.
The project was conducted at GangoTree Eco Technologies Pvt Ltd, ManikBaug, in Pune.
1) Raw materials used in formation of briquette:
Oil Contaminated Cotton Waste is the primary material used which was obtained from the automobile industries of Nasik and Pune. Binder used is waste flour obtained from a nearby flour mill. Dried powder forms of different seeds are used as filler which was available at Gangotree itself.
2) Preparation of mixture:
Oil Contaminated Cotton Waste was first made free from any solid particles like metal pieces, springs, nuts etc. that might inhibit the process of briquette formation
Then the waste was roughly chopped into fine pieces of approx. 4- 5 mm using the waste shredder available at GangoTree.
The mixture was prepared using cotton waste, binder and filler. Briquettes were made taking 100%, 90%, 80%, 70%, 60%, 50%, 40%, and 30% of cotton waste.
The composition of binder was kept constant whereas that of fillers was increased.
3) Briquettes Formation:
Briquetting machine was made available on the site.
The machine was pre heated for 5 minutes at 1000 C. After 5 minutes, the already weighed mixture is placed into the mould of height 16 cm and diameter 10 cm.
The mixture was compressed manually using the piston such that it reaches maximum compression. External heat was provided for better densification for about 10 minutes at 800 C. The machine was then allowed to cool for 5 minutes.
The bottom plate was removed and the briquette was unmolded. Whole process is shown below.
Process Diagram for briquetting:
Figure No 4.1: Briquetting Process
The whole process is shown in the form of photographs below:
Plate No 4.1: Raw Materials Collection Plate No 4.2: Shredding of cotton waste
Plate No 4.3: Preparation of Mixture Plate No 4.4: Briquette Formation (Wet)
Plate No 4.5: Briquetting Machine
Plate No 4.6: Sun Drying of Briquettes Plate No 4.7: Dried Briquettes
4) Analysis of Briquettes:
Briquettes were analyzed for its physical, combustion, proximate, ultimate and gaseous emission properties.
The procedure and details are discussed in this chapter whereas the results are discussed in the next chapter
Different properties of briquettes were analyzed:
1. Durability Index:
Durability Index was determined using Vibration Test. Sample was placed on vibration machine for 10 minutes. Initial weight before placing and final weight after placing was noted.
Durability index is calculated by:-
DI= (final wt. / initial wt.)* 100
Interpretation:-
Index value above 90 is considered to be good for transportation and handling purposes
2. Shatter indices
The briquette was dropped ten times on a concrete floor from a height of 1m. Weight of briquetted before and after shattering was noted. The percent loss of material was calculated. The shatter indices of the briquette were calculated as below, (Madhava, 2012)
Percent weight loss =
% shatter resistance = 100- % weight loss
Where,
w1 = weight of briquette before shattering, g
w2 = weight of briquette after shattering, g
These tests were used for determining the hardness of the briquettes.
Interpretation:-
Shatter resistance above 90% is considered to be good for transportation and handling purposes.
3. Bulk Density:
Bulk Density was carried out by using a cylindrical shaped container of 1000 ml. The container was weighed empty for its mass determination. Then it was filled with the briquette and was weighed again.
Bulk Density = (Mass of briquette sample (kg))/(Volume of measuring cylinder (m3))
4. Percentage Moisture Content (PMC):
Moisture Content is the amount of water in the briquettes. This determines the quality of briquette. Lower moisture content shows high calorific value. The weight of briquette after formation of the briquette and final weight of briquette after drying it for one day were recorded.
Moisture Content =
Where,
W1 = weight of crucible, g
W2 = weight of crucible + sample, g
W3 = weight of crucible + sample, after heating, g
5. Proximate Analysis:
This is the standard procedure which depicts the bulk components that make up any fuel.
I) Percentage Volatile Matter (PVM):
5 grams of sample was taken in a crucible which was covered with a lid. This crucible was placed in Muffle furnace for 10 minutes at 5500C.
High volatile matter indicates highly reactive fuel thus high burning rate.
PVM = [(W1-W2) / (W1-W0)] *100
Where,
W0= Weight of empty crucible, g
W1= Weight of crucible + sample, g
W2= Weight of crucible + sample after 10 minutes, g
II) Percentage Ash Content (PAC):
5 grams of sample was taken in a crucible. This crucible was placed in Muffle furnace for 4 hours at 5500C.
Low Ash Content indicates better utilization as fuel.
PAC = [(W2-W0) / (W1-W0)] *100
Where,
W0= Weight of empty crucible, g
W1= Weight of crucible+ sample, g
W2= Weight of crucible + sample, g
III) Percentage Fixed Carbon:
It is the carbon left after volatile matters are driven off.
PFC = 100- (PVM+PAC)
Where,
PVM = Percentage Volatile Matte
PAC = Percentage Ash Content
6. Heating Value:
Heating Value is the energy released as heat when the briquette will undergo complete combustion with oxygen under standard conditions.
Heating Value = 2.326 (147.6 C+ 144 V)
Where,
C = Percentage Fixed Carbon
V = Percentage Volatile Matter
7. Calorific Value:
It is very important characteristic of a fuel and indicates amount of heat that develops from the mass (weight) in its complete combustion with oxygen in a standardized calorimeter. Thus it is defined as amount of heat liberated during complete combustion of unit mass of biomass usually expressed in Kcal/ kg.
The calorific value of the fuel is calculated by using Bomb calorimeter.
A known mass (1.0 g) of the given fuel is to be taken in crucible and the crucible is supported over a ring. A fine magnesium wire touching the fuel sample is stretched across the electrodes. The bomb lid is tightly screwed and bomb is filled with oxygen at 25 atm pressure. The bomb is then lowered into copper calorimeter, containing a known mass of water. The stirrer is operated and initial temperature of water is noted. The electrodes are then connected to 6-volt battery. The sample is burned and heat is liberated. Uniform mixing is continued until a maximum amount of temperature has attained.
Heat liberated by the fuel = Heat absorbed by water, apparatus, etc.
The calorific value of the briquetted fuel is determined by using equation as below:
Calorific value (Kcal/kg) = ((W+w)(T_2-T_1))/X-E
Where,
W = weight of water in calorimeter (kg)
w = water equivalent of the apparatus
T2= initial temperature of water (0C)
T1 = final temperature of water (0C)
X = weight of fuel sample taken (kg)
E= Correction factor (for fuse wire and cotton thread), (cal)
8. Ultimate Analysis:
The Carbon (C), Hydrogen (H), Oxygen (O), Sulphur (S) and Nitrogen (N) determination in biomass represents ultimate analysis often referred as Elemental Analysis. It helps in determining the quantity of air required for combustion and the volume and composition of the combustion gases of fuel. Standard methods are used for calculation of percentage Carbon, Hydrogen, Nitrogen and Sulphur. Elemental analysis was conducted at Accurate Analysers Pvt Ltd, Nasik- a NABL Accredited Lab
whereas Percentage Oxygen content is calculated as
%O = 100 – %( C + H + N + S + Ash)
9. Gaseous Emission Analysis:
The briquettes were burnt in a cooking stove and analysis of TPM, SO2, NO2 and CO was done. Work place Air monitoring was done to calculate the above parameters. Briquettes were burnt for 8 hours (as per standards). Handy Sampler was used to calculate TPM and gaseous emissions like SO2, NO2 whereas ORSAT apparatus was used to calculate CO.
This test was conducted at Accurate Analysers Pvt Ltd, Nasik.
Photographs of equipments used in analysis are shown below:
Plate No 4.8: Vibration Test Plate No 4.9: Universal Oven
Plate No 4.10: Crucibles
Plate No 4.11: Muffle Furnace Plate No 4.12: Bomb Calorimeter
Plate No 4.13: Desiccators Plate No 4.14: Weighing Balance
Plate No 4.15: Gaseous Sampler Plate No 4.16: ORSAT Apparatus
Plate No 4.17: Experimental Setup for Emission Analysis
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