Globalisation is a topic that is discussed in a variety of contexts such as economic, cultural and political that can be thoroughly examined through a variety of methods within the discipline of criminology (Aas, 2013). In a general sense, the world is connected in one way or another within a crime and justice and that global connections have cultural links such as through westernisation. It could be argued that a consequence of globalisation is that the western world influences the perception of global norms despite criticisms stating that the modern-day western world endures their own orientalist propensities (Cain 2000). This can be associated ethnocentrism, which causes people to tenure preconceptions on other cultures that originate from their own standards and culture which is therefore deemed to be normal to oneself. The term can demonstrate how western approaches to crime determine or influence what behaviour is or is not socially acceptable within other parts of the world. This can identify another consequence of globalisation within different parts of the world which is the abuse of human rights in regard to punishment and how it is delivered can be perceived as unique and therefore wrong to some cultures which can be analysed in a comparative and transitional prospective (Dignan & Cavadino. 2007/08).
‘Outline the differences between the positivist and interpretivist approaches to comparative criminology?’ (200-300 words)
Generally speaking, comparative criminological research is carried out in a quantitative positivist perspective when trying to identify similarities within crime and justice. Positivism intends to identify and explore the global norms within the world amongst multiple cultures regarding crime and justice. It can be carried out through a variety of methods which intend to identify categories, commonalities and areas that have the potential to change or to be learnt from as well as the development of universal theories (Pakes, 2015). Whilst the positivist views can be found to have preference towards orientalism with the perception of the Eastern world as quire. Interpretivist comparative criminological research could be described to have approaches that lean towards occidentalism following stereotypes deeming the western world as bad. An interpretivist approach focuses on the different variations and exceptions to global norms within crime and justice. It provides an explanation as to why there are differences which is critical towards universal theories. It concentrates on the local reason as to why crimes occur as well as why crime control systems operate in specific locations through a historical and cultural perspective (Pakes, 2015).
‘In what ways is it argued that globalisation has led to worldwide increases in urban crime? Illustrate your answer with examples from two or more countries.’ (200-350 words)
Globalisations acceleration in the late 20th century has led the world economies to be more interconnected than ever before. As a result, cities primarily are being heavily invested upon which has triggered urbanisation. In 1980 the urban population was at 700 million and by 2000 it had reached 2.7 billion (Aas 2013). Within Rio De Janeiro, favelas can be seen to represent social separation which runs through modern day Brazil which can identify the urban crime increase in recent years. Favelas have grown significantly over the past decade caused by “rural-urban migration, natural demographic expansion and industrial development” (Koonings & Kruijt, 2015: 38). Due to financial investments within urban areas city a growth within favelas there was an increased power of drug gangs (Koonings & Kruijt, 2015). Brazil can be identified as the supplier of the cocaine trail which has strong link to globalisation because of the way it is exported through Mexico into USA and across the Atlantic Ocean into Europe via West Africa. This has caused fear of instability within West Africa as drug cartels make their way into locations such a Senegal where between the years 2008 and 2009, ‘3,210kg of cocaine’ was seized. In some cases, it has been found that the trafficking of drugs is greater than the countries national income (Thompson, 2009). This demonstrates how the interconnections that have formed through globalisation has led to a lack of control within urban crime.
‘In what ways has globalisation led to worldwide convergences in criminal justice? Illustrate your answer with examples from two or more countries.’ (200-350 words) 216
As the world becomes more evolved and more interconnected through globalisation, convergences can be identified within the criminal justice system such as the zero-tolerance policy. It has been stated that the policy was introduced in the 1980’s due to communities in New York starting to normalise criminal behaviour and as a result law enforcement agencies chose to provide immediate “practical and symbolic reinforcement” towards any form of antisocial behaviour (Case et al, 2017: 639). Zero tolerance is an example of Americanisation which is the “global interconnections and foreign influences on our local lives” (Aas 2013: 5). The UK was proven to be attracted to this policy within political parties as it was felt that it would maintain or establish an image that is a tough approach towards crime (Case et al, 2017). The main objective within the UK in reference to the policy was the aiming to tackle antisocial behaviour at the source. However, in Thailand zero tolerance can be found to have a somewhat different meaning in which organisations such as UN Women are striving to form zero tolerance towards violence against women by the end of 2030 (Ketunuti, 2017). Through the increase of securitisation, convergences can be identified borders are becoming significantly difficult to penetrate which provides crime control on crimes such as trafficking, drug smuggling and terrorism (Aas, 2013). Since 9/11, borders have in a variety of ways intensified, especially airport security, as a result of new global threats where these strategies can be seen to be applied widespread across the planet such as biometrics visas, US-VISIT programme and bio-metric passports (Aas, 2013). It could be said that the intolerance towards criminal behaviour with the ideology of increasing punishment is a result of late modern life that has formed social and economic insecurities and uncertainties (Young, 2007/08). These examples demonstrate how globalisation has formed convergences within criminal justice through having similar objectives to gain control over antisocial behaviour.
‘What criticisms are made of positivist comparative criminology?’ (150-250 words)
Occidentalism criticises the positivist prospective of comparative criminology through a variety of reasons. In terms of Brazil, a major issue that arises when discussing their ways of punishment is that it is misdiagnosed causing prison policies from other cultures to be penetrated into their systems causing more harm than good. This is because of it replacing a system that is effective and suitable for their cultural ways, which as a result causes more pains of imprisonment (Darke, 2018). it is not possible to try and make a positive change within such a place without having an in-depth understanding of the location in hand and how certain behaviour may be more acceptable to their cultural norms (Cain 2000). This in effect concludes that there cannot be solely a universal theory on categories, commonalities as well as ways to change or learn from another society or community due to normality varying depending on the culture (Pakes 2015). This can be associated with ethnocentrism due to people not having a full understanding and therefore assuming that their social and cultural norms must be directly the same or opposite to their own.
‘What criticisms are made of interpretivist comparative criminology?’ (150-250 words)216
It can be argued that interpretivist comparative criminology bares criticisms from an orientalist perspective. This is due to the approach appearing to deny similarities as well as showing support of romanticising differences such as Nordic punishment and therefore demonising American punishment (Cain, 2000). The thesis of American exceptionalism identifies that the use of imprisonment and the death penalty are on the decline, although the Nordic exceptionalism identifies that the American approach is too quick when resorting to punishment and that the system is more discriminative towards ethnic minorities (Pratt, 2011). As a result, American punishment is demonised which causes the support of a Nordic approach to punishment. It could be said that in the modern-day world the west are the ones who suffer from their own orientalist tendencies (Cain 2000). It doesn’t recognise how there may be similarities which could be learnt from and that differences can highlight issues within a countries state. This approach could be deemed as blind to how crime control within other global communities may support local matters that may have a need to change.
‘Using positivist and interpretivist comparative criminology methodology, analyse the nature of urban policing and security in Brazil.’ (300-500 words) 338.5
Urban crime and policing can be said to be exceptionally intricate since the conversion from military dictatorship in the late 1980’s. Ever since Brazil has experienced ascending rates of inequality, police corruption, urban crime and violence that have led to forms of policing and securitisation that to some may be identified as extreme. Amongst poorer areas, private militia which is significantly made up of retired or off duty police officers as well as criminal gangs such as the first command and red command have grown to establishment (Koonings & Kruijt, 2015). This can be associated with interpretivism as this is a national issue that has been solved by the citizens of that nation to provide order within the poorest areas within Brazil. As a result, there have been a number issues that have occurred in terms policing within three main factors which are “economic and demographic expansion of so called non-central regions, the increased effectiveness of security policies, and the improvement of data gathering” (Koonings & Kruijt, 2015:36). Securitisation within Brazil can be said to have positivist ways of approaching securitisation forming communities such as Alphaville in São Paulo. The nature of securitisation has resulted in a divide between the poor and upper-middle class by forming the ‘city of walls’ which provides security, seclusion, services, amenities and hegemony (Caldeira 1996:2000). This can be associated with the global norm, ‘global, dual city’, as Alphaville can be seen to share common themes with western ways of living such as how high-rise buildings becoming a more ‘upper class’ way of living. Strategies have been formed to neutralise crime within both urban and rural areas such as depriving offenders within prison and enhancing surveillance such as CCTV as well as technologies such as electronic tags. These methodologies resonate with the western world which identifies how western ideologies of how to tackle crime have influenced approaches within Brazil. Despite this, crime rates are currently on an up rise within Brazil which coincides with how interprevism due to the way in which is demonstrates how not all forms of punishment fit amongst every society (Darke, 2018).
‘Using positivist and interpretivist comparative criminology methodology, analyse the nature of imprisonment in Brazil.’ (300-500 words) 326
How and why are everyday prison routines and staff-inmate relations different in Brazil to other places? 108
Imprisonment within Brazil could be said to be uniquely evolved around the Brazilian culture. The co-governance that is carried out within the Brazilian prison is due to ‘interdependency’, ‘informality’ and ‘collaboration’ that is present amongst trustees in the prison. Out of 584,758 penitentiary prisoners, 37,388 of those carry out roles including ‘inmate leaders’, ‘in-cell rotas’, ‘cleaning’ and ‘meal teams’, who as a collective run the inside of the prisons (Pachico, 2015). The reason for this is due to state abandonment and how it has caused the gangs from the outside to form allegiance within the prison, well suited to the expression ‘take care of your own’. The ‘great incarceration’ which has occurred over the past two decades is a prominent reason as to why staff and inmate coincide with one another. This can identify changes that should be made within the Brazilian prison environment which is the overcrowding and staff shortages. Over crowding can be seen around brazil with 726,712 people in prison but only have room for 357, 664 prisoners which causes the staff to inmate ratio averaging at one on duty police officer per 100+ inmates (Darke, 2018). The Brazilian prison system should have changes made in order to abolish these issues, however it is important to identify that inmates in many ways are fearful of officers and that should be taken into consideration. A way to go about this issue is by providing a more humanitarian approach towards the Brazilian culture within prisons. The current ratio between inmates and staff is extortionate which can identify many risks to all lives within the establishment, a way to enforce more control within these issues is by the government investing in prsions and less on instituti