Essay: Money markets

Money market refers to the investment in short term because the assets which are bought and sold with maturities within a year. Normally, they can be converted into cash easily. The examples of money market’s instruments are bank deposits, certificates of deposit, interbank loans, money market mutual funds, commercial paper, treasury bills, and securities lending and repurchase agreements (repos). (Dodd, R., 2012). Interbank loans are loans between banks which are not secured by collateral. Commercial paper is a promissory note as an unsecured debt that issued by highly rated banks and some large non-financial corporations. Some safer investments in the money market are treasury bills and repurchase agreements (repos). T-bills are securities issued by the government with maturities of less than a year as it is covered by securities laws while Repos are usually less than two weeks and often overnight. Besides that, money market mutual fund (MMMFs) is another instrument in money market which are securities offered by companies that invest in other money market instruments. Furthermore, asset-backed commercial paper (ABCP) is another money market instrument which is safer compare to the ordinary commercial papers because it is secured by the underlying assets. During financial crisis, these money market instruments are greatly affected and show a big downturn. They are helped by the country treasury and the federal reserved. These agencies created special lending for them to overcome the crisis. Today, some of the money market like ABCP and REPO has shrunk dramatically. (Dodd, R., 2012).
The interest rates and calendar-time effects do affect both the MMFs and bank deposits cash flow for either the institutional or retail investors. (Kotomin,V., et al., 2014) The research found out that institutional money fund investors appear to take advantage of arbitrage opportunities created by the MMFs using the amortized cost valuation technique. A key test variable is used which call ‘Spread’. It is used to measure the direction and magnitude of changes in short-term interest rates and thus capture potential arbitrage opportunities in the money markets arising due to recent changes in interest rates. When Spread is positive, investors would earn a higher rate of return in the alternative investment but when Spread is negative, investors will earn a higher return in MMFs. This shows Spread and MMF flows have a negative relation. (Kotomin,V., et al., 2014) The research on calendar-time effect found out that calendar time effects make money market investors are willing to forego some return to strategically time their cash flows to meet calendar-based cash obligations. Both retail and institutional MMFs moved cash out of MMFs before calendar break points associated with cash obligations and move back into MMFs following the break points. The cash which taken out from the MMFs tend to flow into bank demand deposits. (Kotomin,V., et al., 2014).
The average maturity of the fund will be shortened in order to increase the yield faster if the interest rates are expected to increase and vice versa. Therefore, managers who possessed this ability to anticipate forthcoming movements in the market are able to address the adverse impact and exploit the opportunities available. (Mansur, I., Odusami, B., & Nasseh, A, 2011) The data being used in this study are weekly 90-day T-bill yields and weekly one-month AA financial CP rates. Besides that, they also obtained the weekly weighted average maturity (WAM) on all taxable MMMFs. The results show that weekly changes in WAM have a negative correlation with changes in CP yields and there is no relationship between changes in WAM and changes in T-bill yields. Then, further investigation is made to find out the relationship between interest rates and WAM by applying Granger causality tests. The results showed that the T-bill market is highly efficient. This is because investors cannot gain any deeper understanding by analyzing the maturity structure of MMMFs for information that is not reflected in the T-bill rates.(Mansur, I., Odusami, B., &Nasseh, A, 2011).
There are two theories for bank run their subject of academic and regulatory which are Diamond and Dybvig and the second theory is run in rationally driven by information. The prime money fund is category to give the explanation about covariates of the money fund run, because this category is by far and is most effective by the money fund crisis. The institutional investor moved their money in the same time or later one day in or out of prime money market, especially in the complex within same fund. Besides that, we also find that investment is sensitive no easy to liquidity the money fund holding; correlated flow less happen money fund with greater level of security mutual period is short ‘term. In the other hand, the money fund runs at ‘deep pocket backing’ ,this is indicate with investor infer the fund is guaranteed by their management company and the institution investor, for the most part, moved their money into the U.S government .
According to Fecht, Gr??ner and Hartmann (2007) banks contribute to inter-regional risk sharing. They recommend that the risk sharing depends on the size of the interbank market through secured and unsecured interbank trading. Using LIBOR for some currencies, Kotomin et al. (2008) mentioned the liquidity preference at the end of the year or trimester is the main factor that drives the interest rates’ behavior on short term. Cerrato et al. (2010) discovered that the Euro zone monetary policy is transmitted into CEE interest rates by the framework of the influence of global monetary shocks. Besides, they discovered the presence of structural breaks at the beginning of financial crisis for almost all rates which present long memory. The long run equilibrium relationship between the overnight rates and the corresponding 1 month and 3 month rate was found. From Gregory-Hansen test, these are valid in the presence of a structural break in integrating relationship between the interbank money markets.
The risk-taking behaviour of money market funds during the financial crisis of 2007-2010 was examined by Kacperczyk, M. and Schnabl, P. (December 2012). Starting at August 2007, money funds experienced an extension in their risk-taking opportunities. The analysis shows that ‘fund flows are extremely responsive to past returned and one-standard-deviation increase in fund returns raises annualized fund assets by 46%.’ which makes money market funds had strong incentives to take on risk. (Kacperczyk, M. and Schnabl, P.) The characteristic that predicts risk taking is if fund sponsors has interests in businesses (business concerns) who will reduce risk and a fund sponsor’s financial strength who found that greater financial strength increases risk taking. Other (unobserved) sponsor characteristics, like quality of risk management, risk aversion, investment style, or access to private information would directly affect risk taking. In September 2008, the government introduced unlimited deposit insurance, which effectively replaced the sponsors’ role in providing support that makes the differences in risk taking become smaller. Money market funds lack safety relative to other safe instruments because when the opportunity increases the incentives to take on risk is high but they are vulnerable to runs once the risk materializes.
The demand deposit contracts in open-end mutual fund are same with the bank which can cause the investor withdraw the money from time to time. The higher return was provided by evidence that pursuit to motivate the investors reacting to bad by withdrawing the money. The fund can outperform from the other fund as long as liquidity in the higher market by investing illiquid asset. When investing less liquid asset, the narrow structure of money market fund and make them weak to run. The study also included the risks which involve in investment in illiquid assets when the open-ended structure is involved. Besides that, it was present the run are possible in the money market. The financial intermediaries were given to reform the regulation of the money market fund in U.S and Europe to archive the target for stability the money market fund. Before financial crisis, there only have limited information about asset composition of German money market fund was able to the public and not standardized. The insurance provide with a fund issuer might play on the important role in the stability of money market fund. Money market also is a set large remain stable in the U.S where an implicit insurance is provided.
The sterling overnight money market is important to implement the monetary policy. The development of sterling overnight markets can be sum up into an increased sensitivity of bank liquidity risk and credit risk, introduction of the ‘floor’ system; reduced volatility in overnight interest rates after introducing floor’ system, a drop and growth in unsecured and secured money market activity respectively, introduction of international prudential liquidity regulations andchanging incentives to arbitrage overnight interest rates.(Jackson, C., &Sim, M, 2013). The Bank has introduced a ‘floor system, whereby all reserves account balances were recompense at Bank Rate. Banks preferred to transact among themselves instead of using the money market to manage liquidity which shows that they are more sensitive to credit and liquidity risk. The unsecured interbank trading has dropped drastically after the introduction of the floor system and increase in reserves. After the reinforcement of prudential liquidity regulation, banks have dramatically reduced their use of wholesale unsecured market. They use a longer-term funding combine and hold reserves at the central bank to manage liquidity needs (Jackson, C., &Sim, M, 2013).
The markets for federal funds and Eurodollars are the two core components of the dollar money market which relate for both financial analysis and the execution of monetary policy. The degree of integration of the federal funds and the Eurodollar markets is also important for the implement and transmission of monetary policy. This paper provides a detailed analysis of the extent of integration of the markets for federal funds and for Eurodollar deposit by using a new set of transactional-level data which gained from one of the largest U.S based dollar markets brokers and detailed empirical modelling of the daily and intra-day behaviour of federal fund and Eurodollar interest spread. Besides that, this paper also significant the liquidity effects of money market. The higher money market trading volume lowers the volatility of spreads which keeping federal funds and Eurodollar yields more close. Furthermore, daily news on money market conditions as captured by results of morning Federal Reserve open market auctions are absorbed quickly within a couple of hours into yield spreads was shown. Close integration of federal funds and Eurodollar trading has two immediate implications which are from the standpoint of financial analysis and the standpoint of policy design and analysis of the transmission of monetary policy.